Chapter 23 The United States and The Cold War (Early Cold War)

Truman Doctrine

The Truman Doctrine, announced in 1947, was a U.S. policy pledging support—military and economic—to countries threatened by communism, specifically Greece and Turkey. It was caused by the spread of communism in Europe after WWII and Britain's inability to continue support. Its effects included establishing the U.S. as a global leader against communism, increasing Cold War tensions, and justifying American involvement in future conflicts worldwide.

George Kennan & Containment

George Kennan, a U.S. diplomat in Moscow, proposed the policy of containment, advocating that the U.S. should prevent the spread of Soviet influence rather than directly confront it militarily. Containment was caused by the expansionist nature of the USSR and postwar instability in Europe. Its effects shaped U.S. foreign policy for decades, guiding interventions in Europe, Asia, and beyond and laying the groundwork for the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan.

Marshall Plan

The Marshall Plan, launched in 1948, was a U.S. initiative providing over $12 billion in aid to rebuild Western European economies after WWII. It was caused by fears that economic instability would make countries susceptible to communism. Its effects included rapid economic recovery in Europe, strengthened U.S.-European alliances, and a clear ideological divide with the Soviet Union, which rejected aid for Eastern Bloc nations.

Berlin Airlift

The Berlin Airlift (1948-1949) was the U.S. and Britain's response to the Soviet blockade of West Berlin. It was caused by the USSR's attempt to force the Allies out of Berlin and assert control over Germany. Its effects included demonstrating Western commitment to containing communism, solidifying Cold War divisions in Europe, and boosting American credibility with European allies.

NATO

The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) was created in 1949 as a military alliance of Western nations to deter Soviet aggression. It was caused by the perceived threat of Soviet expansion into Europe. Its effects included collective defense commitments among members, deepening East-West divisions, and prompting the Soviet Union to form the Warsaw Pact, formalizing the military structure of the Cold War.

Chiang Kai-shek

Chiang Kai-shek was the leader of the Nationalist Party (Kuomintang) in China during the Chinese Civil War. He fought against Mao Zedong's communist forces but was ultimately defeated and forced to flee to Taiwan. Chiang's government established itself as the Republic of China in exile, maintaining U.S. support as part of the anti-communist front. His defeat fueled U.S. fears of communist expansion in Asia and influenced the development of NSC-68.

Taiwan

Taiwan became the refuge of Chiang Kai-shek and the Nationalist government after their defeat by Mao Zedong in 1949. It was caused by the communist victory on the mainland and became a base for anti-communist forces in Asia. Taiwan's status contributed to U.S. Cold War policy, with America providing military and economic support, seeing it as a key ally in preventing the spread of communism.

Mao Zedong

Mao Zedong was the leader of the Communist Party of China and founder of the People's Republic of China in 1949. He won the Chinese Civil War by mobilizing peasants, promoting land reforms, and exploiting the weaknesses of the Nationalists. Mao's victory caused shockwaves in the U.S., fueling fears of a "domino effect" in Asia and prompting military and economic strategies like NSC-68. His leadership solidified China as a major communist power allied with the USSR.

People's Republic of China

The People's Republic of China (PRC) was established in 1949 under Mao Zedong after the communist victory in the Chinese Civil War. Its creation caused alarm in the United States and was seen as a significant loss in the global struggle against communism, contributing to heightened Cold War tensions, the Korean War, and the development of containment policies in Asia.

Korean War

The Korean War (1950-1953) was a conflict between North Korea, supported by the USSR and China, and South Korea, supported by the U.S. and United Nations forces. It was caused by the division of Korea at the 38th parallel after WWII and North Korea's invasion of the South. The war resulted in massive casualties, reinforced U.S. Cold War policies, and demonstrated the global stakes of containment, leading to increased military spending and entrenchment of U.S. alliances in Asia.

Syngman Rhee

Syngman Rhee was the first president of South Korea and a staunch anti-communist. Backed by the United States, he led South Korea during the Korean War. His authoritarian style and anti-communist stance exemplified U.S. willingness to support non-democratic leaders to counter communism. His leadership ensured South Korea remained capitalist, contributing to the lasting division of the Korean Peninsula.

38th Parallel

The 38th parallel was the line dividing North and South Korea after WWII. It was caused by agreements between the United States and the USSR to temporarily occupy Korea after Japan's defeat. This division became a focal point for the Korean War and symbolizes the Cold War's global partitioning of nations into communist and capitalist spheres.

"Soft on Communism"

The phrase "soft on communism" was used in U.S. political discourse to accuse individuals or policies of being insufficiently aggressive in opposing communism. It was caused by Cold War paranoia, particularly after the loss of China and the outbreak of the Korean War. Its effects included political attacks on Truman and others, shaping domestic policy and pressuring the U.S. government to take a harder stance abroad and at home.

Servicemen's Readjustment Act (GI Bill)

The GI Bill, passed in 1944, provided returning WWII veterans with benefits such as education, housing, and low-interest loans. It was caused by the need to reintegrate millions of veterans into civilian life and prevent economic collapse. Its effects included the expansion of higher education, the growth of suburban housing, and the strengthening of the middle class, shaping postwar American society and indirectly bolstering the economy during the Cold War.

Inflation and Labor Unions

After WWII, the U.S. experienced inflation as wartime production declined and consumer demand surged. Coupled with returning veterans needing employment, this caused strikes and labor unrest. Unions pushed for higher wages, and strikes were frequent. These events contributed to public tension over economic management and provided conservatives with arguments against New Deal-style policies.

Taft-Hartley Act

Passed in 1947, the Taft-Hartley Act restricted labor unions' power, outlawing closed shops and limiting strikes. It was caused by postwar strikes and conservative efforts to weaken union influence. Its effects included the reduction of union power, tension between labor and government, and a political shift toward conservative economic policies, setting back some gains made under the New Deal.

Henry Wallace

Henry Wallace was a former Vice President and 1948 Progressive Party presidential candidate. He advocated for peaceful coexistence with the USSR, social welfare programs, and civil rights, contrasting with Truman's hardline stance. Wallace's campaign was weakened by Cold War fears, highlighting the tension between liberal reform and anti-communist hysteria in U.S. politics.

Strom Thurmond

Strom Thurmond was a Southern Democrat who led the Dixiecrat Party in 1948 in opposition to Truman's civil rights policies. He represented the segregationist backlash in the South. His campaign reflected the ideological and regional divisions within the Democratic Party and highlighted the limits of progressivism in the face of entrenched racism.

Dixiecrats

The Dixiecrats were a political faction of Southern Democrats opposed to federal civil rights initiatives. They were caused by Truman's push for civil rights and represented white Southern resistance to racial integration. Their effects included a temporary realignment of political power in the South and the entrenchment of segregationist politics in the region.

Fair Deal

The Fair Deal was Truman's domestic policy agenda, aimed at expanding social welfare programs, raising the minimum wage, improving housing, and establishing national health insurance. It was caused by the success of the New Deal and postwar economic challenges. Its effects included partial success in expanding social security and housing programs, but much of the agenda was blocked by a conservative Congress fearful of socialism and Cold War militarization.

Loyalty Review Board

The Loyalty Review Board, established in 1947, investigated federal employees for alleged communist ties. It was caused by Cold War fears of Soviet infiltration. Its effects included widespread anxiety, resignations, and firings, contributing to the culture of suspicion that fueled McCarthyism.

Hollywood Blacklists

The Hollywood blacklists were a series of actions during the late 1940s and 1950s that barred actors, writers, and directors suspected of communist sympathies from working in the film industry. They were caused by HUAC investigations and anti-communist hysteria. Their effects included ruined careers, self-censorship in media, and a chilling effect on freedom of expression in the arts.

McCarran Internal Security Act

The McCarran Internal Security Act of 1950 required communist organizations to register with the government and allowed detention of subversives during emergencies. It was caused by Cold War fears and domestic anti-communist sentiment. Its effects included suppression of political dissent and institutionalization of anti-communist surveillance.

House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC)

HUAC was a congressional committee tasked with investigating alleged disloyalty and subversive activities. It was caused by Cold War fears and domestic anti-communist sentiment. Its effects included public hearings that intimidated citizens, targeted minorities and political opponents, and created an environment of fear and censorship.

Freedom of Expression in Arts

During the Cold War, freedom of expression in the arts became a political tool. While the U.S. promoted abstract art as a symbol of freedom, those suspected of communist ties were censored. This paradox reflected Cold War anxieties: promoting freedom abroad while limiting it at home. Its effects included both cultural flourishing and suppression.

Alger Hiss

Alger Hiss was a U.S. State Department official accused of being a Soviet spy. His case was caused by Cold War fears and testimonies from Whittaker Chambers. The effect was a high-profile trial that fueled public distrust of government officials and anti-communist sentiment.

Whittaker Chambers

Whittaker Chambers was a former Soviet spy turned U.S. informant who accused Alger Hiss of espionage. His actions were caused by his ideological shift and desire to expose communism. His testimony fueled McCarthyism and created a culture of suspicion and paranoia about internal subversion.

Rosenberg Case

Julius and Ethel Rosenberg were American citizens tried and executed for allegedly passing atomic secrets to the Soviet Union. Their case was caused by espionage fears, Soviet nuclear advancement, and domestic hysteria. Its effects included heightened Cold War anxieties, justification for loyalty investigations, and debates over due process.

Joseph McCarthy & McCarthyism

Senator Joseph McCarthy led a campaign in the early 1950s alleging widespread communist infiltration of the U.S. government. McCarthyism was caused by postwar fears of Soviet espionage, political ambitions, and public susceptibility to anti-communist rhetoric. Its effects included ruined reputations, blacklisting, widespread fear, suppression of dissent, and ultimately a backlash when McCarthy overreached, illustrating the dangers of political paranoia.

Nuclear Arms Race

The nuclear arms race was the competition between the U.S. and USSR to develop increasingly powerful atomic and hydrogen bombs. It was caused by mutual distrust, the desire for deterrence, and technological rivalry. This race led to massive stockpiling of nuclear weapons, the development of intercontinental ballistic missiles, and heightened global anxiety, with both nations prepared for potential annihilation, fundamentally shaping Cold War strategy and diplomacy.

NSC-68

NSC-68 was a 1950 National Security Council report that advocated for a dramatic increase in U.S. military spending to counter the Soviet threat. It was caused by the Soviet acquisition of nuclear weapons and the fall of China to communism. Its effects included the militarization of U.S. foreign policy, justification for involvement in Korea and other conflicts, and a long-term escalation of the Cold War, framing it as a global struggle between freedom and totalitarianism.

Douglas MacArthur

Douglas MacArthur was a U.S. general who led Allied forces in the Pacific during WWII and commanded UN forces during the Korean War. He was known for bold strategies, including the Inchon Landing. MacArthur's push to expand the Korean War into China, including suggestions of using nuclear weapons, brought him into conflict with President Truman, who relieved him of command. MacArthur's actions reflected the tensions between military initiative and civilian control during the Cold War.

Chinese Civil War

The Chinese Civil War (1927-1949) was fought between the communist forces led by Mao Zedong and the nationalist forces of Chiang Kai-shek. The war resumed after WWII and was caused by political, social, and ideological divides. Mao's victory in 1949 led to the establishment of the People's Republic of China, while Chiang fled to Taiwan. The war's outcome caused alarm in the U.S., fueling fears of a domino effect in Asia and reinforcing Cold War containment policies.

National Security Act

The National Security Act of 1947 reorganized the U.S. military and intelligence apparatus after WWII. It created the Department of Defense, the National Security Council (NSC), and the CIA, providing the framework for managing Cold War threats. The act was caused by the recognition that modern warfare required coordination across military, intelligence, and foreign policy sectors. Its effects included the institutionalization of U.S. national security strategy, preparation for nuclear confrontation, and centralization of Cold War decision-making.

East/West Germany

After WWII, Germany was divided into East and West, with the East controlled by the USSR and the West controlled by the U.S., UK, and France. This division was caused by Allied agreements and the emerging Cold War confrontation. East Germany became a communist state under Soviet influence, while West Germany adopted a capitalist democracy. The split created a focal point for Cold War tensions, including the Berlin Blockade, and shaped European politics for decades, culminating in the construction of the Berlin Wall.

Dean Acheson

Dean Acheson was the U.S. Secretary of State under President Truman from 1949 to 1953. He played a pivotal role in shaping U.S. foreign policy during the early Cold War, helping to implement containment strategies and build alliances to counter Soviet influence. Acheson helped craft the Truman Doctrine, supported the Marshall Plan, and was a key architect of NATO. His policies strengthened Western Europe economically and militarily, solidifying the division between East and West and positioning the U.S. as the dominant Western superpower.

Cold War

The Cold War was the decades-long ideological, political, and military tension between the United States and the Soviet Union after World War II. It was caused by the dramatic shift in global power following the war, as European powers like Britain, France, and Germany were weakened, leaving the U.S. and the USSR as the dominant superpowers. Ideological differences fueled the conflict: the U.S. championed capitalism and democracy, while the USSR promoted communism and state control of the economy. The Cold War resulted in proxy wars, such as the Korean War and the Chinese Civil War, a nuclear arms race, and intense domestic anti-communist policies in the United States, yet the two superpowers never fought directly due to fear of nuclear annihilation.

Soviet Union

The Soviet Union, or USSR, emerged from the Russian Revolution under Vladimir Lenin and became a communist superpower. Under Joseph Stalin, it experienced rapid industrialization through Five-Year Plans, consolidating control over Eastern Europe after World War II and establishing a buffer of communist satellite states. Its desire to expand its ideology and influence globally brought it into direct tension with the U.S., creating the framework for the Cold War. The Soviet Union's policies in Eastern Europe, including installing communist governments in violation of agreements at Yalta, caused fear in the West and helped justify U.S. strategies like the Truman Doctrine and Marshall Plan.

Joseph Stalin

Joseph Stalin led the Soviet Union from the mid-1920s until his death in 1953. His totalitarian rule centralized political power and drove the rapid industrialization of the USSR. After WWII, Stalin sought to expand Soviet influence by controlling Eastern Europe and spreading communism, actions that directly triggered Western fears and the U.S. policy of containment. His leadership contributed to the Iron Curtain dividing Europe, fueled the arms race, and supported communist movements in Asia, including Mao Zedong's victory in China. Stalin's aggressive expansionism made him the ideological and strategic opponent of the United States in the early Cold War.

United Nations Security Council (UNSC)

The United Nations Security Council was established in 1945 to maintain international peace and security, with five permanent members: the United States, USSR, UK, France, and China. Each permanent member has veto power, giving them significant influence over decisions. During the Cold War, the UNSC was often paralyzed by ideological conflict between the U.S. and USSR, although it was used by the U.S. to authorize intervention in conflicts like the Korean War. The council's structure reflected lessons from the failure of the League of Nations and became a tool for great powers to pursue their strategic interests under the guise of international law.

World Bank

The World Bank, formed alongside the United Nations, is an international financial institution that provides loans and grants to rebuild postwar economies and develop poorer nations. After WWII, it helped Western Europe recover from devastation, indirectly supporting the U.S. strategy of containment by stabilizing economies vulnerable to communism. By fostering trade and economic growth in Western-aligned countries, the World Bank contributed to a clear division between prosperous, capitalist nations and the communist East, which refused to participate in Western-led economic programs.

Communist Satellites

Communist satellites were nations in Eastern Europe under Soviet influence, including Poland, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Romania, and Bulgaria. They were caused by the USSR's occupation of these countries during WWII and Stalin's goal of creating a buffer zone against Western Europe. These satellites adopted communist political systems and centralized economies modeled after the USSR. Their existence deepened the Iron Curtain, solidifying Europe's division and escalating tensions with the West, which saw them as tools of Soviet expansionism and threats to global democracy.

Iron Curtain

The Iron Curtain was a metaphorical boundary dividing Eastern and Western Europe, popularized by Winston Churchill in 1946. It represented the ideological, political, and physical separation between communist-controlled states under the USSR and democratic capitalist nations allied with the United States. It was caused by Soviet expansion and the establishment of satellite states, and it solidified Europe as a continent split into two opposing camps. The Iron Curtain became a symbol of Cold War tensions and was physically manifested by barriers like the Berlin Wall in later years.

Winston Churchill

Winston Churchill, the former Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, played a key role in warning the world about Soviet expansionism. Despite Britain's weakened postwar status, he sought to rally Western powers against communism and preserve European freedom. His "Iron Curtain" speech in 1946 galvanized U.S. public and political support for containment and set the stage for cooperative Western strategies like the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan.