AP Psychology

Informed consent

An ethical guideline where participants are fully informed about the research and agree to participate.

Debrief

An ethical guideline involving explaining the purpose and results of the research after it is completed.

Confidentiality

An ethical guideline that ensures participants' information is kept private.

Naturalistic Observations

Observing subjects in their natural environment without manipulating variables.

Case Studies

In-depth analysis of a single case or group to explore its complexities.

Experiments

Research method used to determine cause and effect by manipulating variables.

Independent Variable

The variable that is manipulated by the researcher in an experiment.

Dependent Variable

The variable that responds to the manipulation of the independent variable.

Operational Definition

A clear and precise definition of a variable for measurement purposes.

Correlations

Indicate a relationship between two variables and how well one predicts the other.

Longitudinal Studies

Research conducted over a long period, with consecutive observations of the same subjects.

Cross-sectional Studies

Research that compares different demographics at a single point in time.

Standard Deviation

A measure of the variation of scores from the mean.

Mean

The average value in a dataset.

Median

The middle value in a sorted list of numbers.

Mode

The most frequently occurring value in a dataset.

Statistical Significance

The likelihood that a relationship observed in data is not due to chance.

Positive Correlation

Indicates that as one variable increases, the other variable also tends to increase.

Negative Correlation

Indicates that as one variable increases, the other tends to decrease.

P-value

A statistical metric that indicates the probability that results are due to chance.

Strength of Correlation

A measure of how closely two variables are related, ranging from -1 to +1.

Wernicke's Area

Brain region associated with language comprehension.

Broca's Area

Brain region associated with speech production.

Medulla

Brain structure responsible for controlling heart rate and breathing.

Cerebellum

Brain structure that coordinates movement and balance.

Corpus Callosum

The large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres.

Amygdala

A brain region involved in emotional processing, particularly fear and aggression.

Hippocampus

Brain structure crucial for memory storage.

Hypothalamus

Brain region that regulates basic life functions such as hunger and thirst.

Central Nervous System

The part of the nervous system consisting of the brain and spinal cord.

Peripheral Nervous System

The part of the nervous system that includes all other neural elements.

Autonomic Nervous System

Branch of the nervous system that controls involuntary actions.

Somatic Nervous System

Part of the peripheral nervous system that controls voluntary movements.

Sympathetic Nervous System

Branch of the autonomic nervous system activated during 'fight or flight' response.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

Branch of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body.

Acetylcholine (ACh)

A neurotransmitter involved in learning and memory; low levels linked to Alzheimer's.

Dopamine

A neurotransmitter linked to movement and reward; imbalances associated with Parkinson’s and schizophrenia.

Serotonin

A neurotransmitter that affects mood; low levels are linked to depression.

GABA

A neurotransmitter that inhibits neural activity; low levels are associated with seizures.

Sleep Apnea

A disorder characterized by interrupted breathing during sleep.

Narcolepsy

A sleep disorder leading to sudden, uncontrollable episodes of sleep.

Insomnia

Difficulty in falling or staying asleep.

NREM 1

The lightest stage of sleep characterized by hypnagogic jerks.

NREM 2

Stage of sleep associated with sleep spindles, or bursts of activity.

NREM 3

Deep sleep where sleepwalking can occur.

REM Sleep

Stage of sleep where most dreaming occurs and body is temporarily paralyzed.

Difference Threshold

The minimum difference between two stimuli that can be detected.

Yerkes-Dodson Law

Principle stating optimal arousal for performance varies with task difficulty.

Frequency (in Hearing)

The number of sound waves completed in one second, affecting pitch.

Pitch

The subjective perception of how high or low a sound is, determined by frequency.

Fovea

The central focus point in the retina of the eye.

Blind Spot

Area on the retina where the optic nerve exits, lacking visual receptors.

Rods

Photoreceptors in the retina that detect black-and-white and operate in low light.

Cones

Photoreceptors responsible for color vision and detailed vision in bright light.

Selective Attention

The process of focusing on one specific stimulus while ignoring others.

Monocular Cues

Depth cues that require only one eye for perception of depth.

Interposition

A monocular cue where objects that overlap are perceived as closer.

Relative Size

A monocular cue stating larger objects are perceived as closer.

Linear Perspective

Monocular cue where parallel lines appear to converge as they recede into the distance.

Color Constancy

Perception that the color of objects remains the same under varying lighting.

Shape Constancy

Perception that the shape of an object remains the same despite changes in viewing angle.

Algorithm

A systematic step-by-step procedure guaranteed to solve a problem.

Availability Heuristic

Judging the likelihood of events based on readily available information.

Representativeness Heuristic

Judging based on how closely an object matches a prototype.

Convergent Thinking

A problem-solving approach that narrows down to the single best answer.

Divergent Thinking

A creative problem-solving process that generates multiple possible solutions.

Functional Fixedness

The tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions.

Episodic Memory

Memory of personal experiences and specific events.

Procedural Memory

Memory of how to perform tasks and skills.

Semantic Memory

Memory of general knowledge and facts.

Massed Practice

A study technique involving cramming information in a short period.

Distributed Practice

A study technique involving spreading out study sessions over time.

Proactive Interference

When old information interferes with the recall of new information.

Retroactive Interference

When new information interferes with the recall of old information.

Misinformation Effect

The phenomenon whereby a person's recall of episodic memories becomes less accurate due to post-event information.

IQ (Intelligence Quotient)

A measurement of cognitive abilities relative to others.

Object Permanence

Understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen.

Egocentrism

Inability to see things from another person's perspective.

Conservation

Understanding that quantity remains the same despite changes in shape or appearance.

Formal Operational Stage

Piaget's stage of cognitive development characterized by logical and abstract thinking.

Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt

Erikson's stage where children develop a sense of personal control.

Industry vs Inferiority

Erikson's stage where children learn to cope with new social and academic demands.

Integrity vs Despair

Erikson's final stage of psychosocial development, reflecting on one's life.

Authoritarian Parenting

A parenting style characterized by high demands and low responsiveness.

Permissive Parenting

A parenting style characterized by low demands and high responsiveness.

Authoritative Parenting

A balanced parenting style that includes setting rules but allowing flexibility.

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

A stimulus that naturally elicits a response without prior conditioning.

Unconditioned Response (UCR)

The automatic, natural response to an unconditioned stimulus.

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

A previously neutral stimulus that, after conditioning, evokes a response.

Conditioned Response (CR)

The learned response to a conditioned stimulus.

Operant Conditioning

by B.F. Skinner; behavior and its consequences (includes Law of Effect, reinforcement, punishment, etc.)

Law of Effect

The principle stating that behaviors followed by favorable outcomes are likely to be repeated.

Positive Reinforcement

Adding a desirable stimulus to increase the likelihood of a behavior.

Negative Reinforcement

Removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase the likelihood of a behavior.

Fixed Interval Schedule

Reinforcement is provided after a specific period.

Variable Interval Schedule

Reinforcement is provided after varying intervals of time.

Fixed Ratio Schedule

Reinforcement is given after a set number of responses.

Variable Ratio Schedule

Reinforcement is given after an unpredictable number of responses.

Positive Punishment

Adding an unpleasant stimulus to decrease a behavior.

Negative Punishment

Removing a desirable stimulus to decrease a behavior.