AP Psychology
Research (Unit 0)
· Ethical Guidelines: Informed consent, debrief, confidentiality
· Types of Research
o Naturalistic Observations: Observing without manipulating variables, does not determine cause and effect
o Case Studies: Small, detailed investigation of a special case or group
o Experiments: Determine cause and effect
§ Independent Variable: The variable manipulated by the researcher
§ Dependent Variable: The variable that changes in response to the independent variable
§ Operational Definition: Clearly defining variables for measurement
o Correlations: Implies a relationship; indicates how well one thing predicts another
o Longitudinal Studies: Research over time; potential for participant dropout
o Cross-sectional Studies: Different age groups or demographics studied at the same point in time
· Statistics
o Standard Deviation: Measures the variation from the mean (within 15 points of the mean)
o Mean, Median, Mode: Measures of central tendency
o Statistical Significance: Indicates whether results are due to chance (p ≤ 0.05 indicates 95% likelihood results are not by chance)
§ Positive Correlation: Range from 0.01 to 1
§ Negative Correlation: Range from -1 to -0.01
Positive Correlation
A positive correlation means that as one variable increases, the other variable tends to increase as well. In other words, there is a direct relationship between the two variables. For example, if you are studying the relationship between hours studied and test scores, you might find that as hours studied increases, test scores also increase.
· Example: Height and weight generally have a positive correlation — taller individuals tend to be heavier.
· Statistical Significance: If a positive correlation is statistically significant, it means that the relationship between the two variables is unlikely to have occurred by chance. A p-value below a threshold (typically 0.05) would indicate that the positive correlation is statistically significant.
Negative Correlation
A negative correlation means that as one variable increases, the other tends to decrease. This is an inverse relationship between the two variables. For example, if you're studying the relationship between the amount of exercise and body fat percentage, you might find that as exercise increases, body fat percentage decreases.
· Example: The number of hours spent watching TV and academic performance might show a negative correlation — as TV watching increases, academic performance might decrease.
· Statistical Significance: A statistically significant negative correlation means the inverse relationship between the variables is real and unlikely to be due to random chance. Again, a p-value below a predefined threshold (e.g., 0.05) suggests the result is statistically significant.
Key Points on Statistical Significance:
· P-value: A lower p-value indicates stronger evidence against the null hypothesis (which posits no correlation).
· Confidence Interval: A confidence interval that does not include zero suggests a significant correlation.
· Strength of Correlation: Correlation coefficients range from -1 to +1. A value close to +1 indicates a strong positive correlation, and a value close to -1 indicates a strong negative correlation.
In summary:
· Positive correlation: Both variables increase together.
· Negative correlation: One variable increases while the other decreases.
· Statistical significance: Determines whether the correlation observed is likely to reflect a true relationship or could have occurred by random chance.
Biology (Unit 1 Part I)
· Parts of the Brain
o Wernicke's Area: Language comprehension
o Broca's Area: Speech production
o Medulla: Controls heart rate and breathing
o Cerebellum: Coordinates movement and balance
o Corpus Collosum: Connects the two hemispheres of the brain
o Amygdala: Involved in emotions, particularly fear and aggression
o Hippocampus: Important for memory storage (facts and events)
o Hypothalamus: Regulates hunger, thirst, body temperature, and basic drives
· Nervous System Branches
o Central/Peripheral: Central (brain and spinal cord) vs Peripheral (rest of the body)
o Autonomic/Somatic: Autonomic controls involuntary actions; Somatic controls voluntary movements
o Sympathetic/Parasympathetic:
§ Sympathetic: Activated in fight-or-flight response; increases heart rate and decreases digestion
§ Parasympathetic: Calms the body; lowers heart rate and increases digestion
· Neurotransmitters
o AcH (Acetylcholine): Low levels associated with Alzheimer's disease
o Dopamine: Imbalance linked to Parkinson’s disease and schizophrenia
o Serotonin: Low levels linked to depression
o GABA: Low levels linked to seizures, tremors, and insomnia
Sleep and Sensation (Unit 1 Part II)
· Sleep Disorders
o Sleep Apnea: Interrupted breathing during sleep; symptoms include snoring and gasping
o Narcolepsy: Sudden, uncontrollable sleep episodes at inappropriate times
o Insomnia: Difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep
· Stages of Sleep
o NREM 1: Light sleep with hypnagogic jerks (muscle twitches)
o NREM 2: Sleep spindles (bursts of brain activity)
o NREM 3: Deep sleep, sleepwalking can occur
o REM: Dreaming occurs, body temporarily paralyzed to prevent acting out dreams
· Sensation
o Difference Threshold (Weber’s Law): Minimum difference between two stimuli that can be detected
o Yerkes-Dodson Law: Optimal arousal for performance depends on task difficulty
o Hearing
§ Frequency: Determines the pitch of a sound wave (the number of sound waves completed in one second is the frequency)
§ Pitch: High frequency = high pitch; low frequency = low pitch; (pitch is the subjective perception of how high or low a sound is, and it is influenced by the frequency of the sound wave)
o Seeing
§ Fovea: Central focus point in the retina
§ Blind Spot: Area where the optic nerve exits the eye
§ Rods: Receptors for black-and-white vision, active in low light
§ Cones: Receptors for color vision, active in bright light
Perception and Thinking (Unit 2 Part I)
· Perception
o Selective Attention: Focusing on one stimulus while ignoring others
o Monocular Cues
§ Interposition: Objects in front are perceived as closer
§ Relative Size: Larger objects are perceived as closer
§ Linear Perspective: Parallel lines appear to converge with distance
o Color Constancy/Shape Constancy: Perception of objects' color or shape remains constant despite changes in light or angle
· Thinking
o Algorithm: A step-by-step procedure that guarantees a solution
o Availability vs Representativeness Heuristic
§ Availability: Judging based on information readily available
§ Representativeness: Judging based on how closely something matches a prototype
o Convergent vs Divergent Thinking
§ Convergent: Narrowing down to a single solution (think: like a math problem)
§ Divergent: Generating multiple possible solutions (more creative)
o Functional Fixedness: The inability to see an object used for something other than its typical function
Memory and Intelligence (Unit 2 Part II)
· Memory
o Types of Memory
§ Episodic: Personal experiences (e.g., memories of a birthday)
§ Procedural: Skills and tasks (e.g., riding a bike)
§ Semantic: General knowledge and facts (e.g., the capital of France)
o Massed vs Distributed Practice
§ Massed: Cramming
§ Distributed: Spaced-out study sessions for better retention
o Proactive vs Retroactive Interference
§ Proactive: Old memories interfere with the recall of new information
§ Retroactive: New memories interfere with the recall of old information
o Misinformation Effect: Memories can be altered by misleading information
· Intelligence
o IQ: Intelligence Quotient, a measure of cognitive abilities
o Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences: Theory proposing different types of intelligence (e.g., linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic)
Development (Unit 3 Part I)
· Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
o Object Permanence: Understanding that objects exist even when they cannot be seen (Sensorimotor Stage)
o Egocentrism: Inability to see things from another’s perspective (Preoperational Stage)
o Conservation: Understanding that quantity does not change despite changes in appearance (Concrete Operational Stage)
o Formal Operational Stage: Ability to think hypothetically and logically (adolescence)
· Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development
o Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt: Children learn to exercise their will and make choices (1-3 years)
o Industry vs Inferiority: Children develop a sense of competence (6-puberty)
o Integrity vs Despair: Reflection on life; older adults feel either satisfaction or failure
· Parenting Styles
o Authoritarian: Strict, demanding obedience
o Permissive: Few limits, lenient
o Authoritative: Balanced, with rules but flexibility and open discussion
Learning (Unit 3 Part II)
· Classical Conditioning (Pavlov)
o Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): A stimulus that naturally triggers a response
o Unconditioned Response (UCR): The natural reaction to the unconditioned stimulus
o Conditioned Stimulus (CS): A neutral stimulus that becomes associated with the unconditioned stimulus
o Conditioned Response (CR): The learned response to the conditioned stimulus
· Operant Conditioning (Skinner)
o Law of Effect: Behaviors followed by favorable consequences are likely to be repeated
o Positive Reinforcement: Adding a desirable stimulus to encourage a behavior
o Negative Reinforcement: Removing an unpleasant stimulus to encourage a behavior
o Schedules of Reinforcement:
§ Fixed Interval: Reinforcement after a set amount of time
§ Variable Interval: Reinforcement after varying amounts of time
§ Fixed Ratio: Reinforcement after a set number of responses
§ Variable Ratio: Reinforcement after an unpredictable number of responses
o Positive Punishment: Adding an unpleasant stimulus to decrease a behavior
o Negative Punishment: Removing a desirable stimulus to decrease a behavior
· Cognitive Map: Mental representation of physical space (e.g., navigating a city)