Archaeology Exam #2

Geoarchaeology

archaeological field of research concerned with geology and earth science that studies and interprets the geology and sediments of a site/region

Why is geoarchaeology important?

1. many archaeological materials are buried in the Earth's surface

2. provides an understanding and appreciation of the geological context of remains

3. concerned with regional or local analysis

4. geology makes up the landscape of human settlement and activity

What does particle size analysis help identify?

1. natural vs cultural processes

2. transport agents

3. natural origins of sediments

Site formation processes

1. fluvial (water)

2. alluvial (along water)

3. colluvial (gravity)

4. eolian (air/wind)

Sediment analysis

can provide info on the natural origins of sediments and the difference between cultural and natural processes

Disconformity/noncomformity

something (a layer) starts but doesn't conform all the way through because something is missing or interrupted

terminus ante quem

"occurring before which"; refers to the concept that all the soil below a solid, undisturbed layer dates before that layer

terminus post quem

"occurring after which"; term used to indicate the date after which an artifact must have been deposited

The relationship between coins and dating

Coins are unreliable for dating since people tend to save them and they are used for long periods of time

anthropogenic

(of sediments) produced or affected by human activity

Sediment particle sizes

clay --> silt --> sand --> gravel

matrix

the bulk material of sediments and other contents that enclose archaeological remains

micromorphology

area of geoarchaeology that involves the study of anthropogenic sediments at a microscopic level

texture

the size and sorting of sediments

intrusive features

features found in the layers of sediment that interrupt the strata/chronological standing of the strata

Harris Matrix

a flow-like chart used as a simpler method for describing the layers of strata and archaeological layers. (represents individual layers, deposits, features, and interfaces in a profile)

Which stones are better for tool-making?

The best materials are brittle but hard and smooth; prehistoric peoples sought hard, fine-grained crystalline rocks (cryptocrystalline quartz, chert/flint) with predictable fracture

Why are stones used to make tools?

Stones are

1. one of the hardest natural materials

2. will retain an edge

3. have a predictable fracture

4. preserve virtually forever

Why are clays at the basis of ceramic technology?

clay has properties essential for pottery and is the primary material to make ceramics because

1. clay becomes plastic when mixed with water

2. it holds a shape

3. becomes hard when heated

4 key factors that affect the final product of a ceramic vessel

1. raw materials

2. forming methods

3. surface treatment

4. firing

4 key factors which affect the FIRING of a ceramic vessel

1. fuel

2. temperature

3. atmosphere

4. duration

Why is lithic analysis important?

1. process by which archaeologists describe and define stone artifacts

2. stones are the earliest human artifacts that archaeologists study

3. evolved over time and became more specialized in use and smaller in size

4. provide info on development of cognitive and motor skills of early ancestors

5. evidence of foreign stone at a site provides info on movement, exchange, and interaction

Why is ceramic analysis important?

1. key part of many archaeological investigations

2. ceramics are made in a regular way according to cultural choices

3. help archaeologists understand technology, activities, and interaction between different groups of people

4. changes in size, shape, color, and design provide important chronological characteristics

How to interpret the function of a stone?

shape, manufacture, microscopic wear patterns, and archaeological context to determine how they were used.

Why do we refer to clays as being made of clay minerals?

clay is a sheet silicate

In what ways does the chemical structure of clay explain the physical structure?

With water, each sheet layer slides past each other (plasticity) and when fired, chemical bonding of the layers occurs (producing ceramics)

Chain of Production

refers to steps in the process of an entire production and reconstruction of the operation; sequence reveals choices made at each step

Flintknapping

technique/subtractive process for making stone tools by intentionally removing a series of flakes that produces a lot of waste material

Experimental practice of chipping stone to learn about fracture mechanics

What are the key measurements taken on ceramic vessels to help us interpret their function?

1. rim diameter

2. aperture diameter

3. vessel height

4. wall thickness --> all help us determine vessel form type and function

Identify Ripples, Bulb of Percussion, and Striking Platform

Lithics

Worked stone objects made by people from raw stone material

Fracture Mechanics

When a percussive force is applied to isotropic stone (stone that fractures in the same, predictable way in all directions) the knapper is able to control the direction and size of the force to produce an intended flake.

flakes

any piece intentionally removed in the process by either a blow or pressure

Blades

long, narrow flakes that can be removed sequentially from a core

Debitage

unusued material that results from the process of flintknapping or fracturing

Refitting

the reassembling of parent cores and tools that were used and broken on a site or working backwards from debitage to production sequence

Chert and Flint

type of cryptocrystalline quartz with slightly larger crystal size and certain impurities that give it color and cloudiness

Cryptocrystalline stone

most common material used in archaeological lithic remains; type of stone that has microscopic crystals and is created from silica under pressure in marine deposits

Sherds

broken pieces of pottery (American)

Temper

non-plastic substance intentionally added to reduce breakage caused by shrinking or firing

Temper vs. Natural Inclusions

Tempered inclusions were added in intentionally, while natural inclusions are pieces of dirt, pebbles, or any other material that get caught in a ceramic unintentionally.

Petrographic Microscope

a specialized microscope used to study thin sections with transmitted polarized light under high magnification for rapid identification and tabulation of components of materials

Archaeobotany

the study of archaeological plant remains

What is the importance of archaeobotany?

1. concerns the origins of agriculture

2. the identification of early domesticated plants

3. can tell us about the natural environment at a site

4. info on the human choices made in the selection of resources

Macrobotanical remains

remains visible to the naked eye (seeds, nutshells, pieces of wood, leaves)

Microbotanical remains

remains visible only with microscopic magnification (pollen, phytoliths, starch grains)

Importance of pollen profiles

provides a picture of past vegetation, climate, and environmental conditions

What did humans figure out about manipulating plants?

Humans selectively bred plants to increase productivity, make them bigger, and cause them to reproduce only with human intervention

Teosinte Vs. Maize

Maize and Teosinte appear very different. The stems vary greatly, and the kernals on teosinte are completely incased which differs from the exposed kernals on Maize. Teosinte and Maize, however only differ by about 5 genes, meaning that Teosinte was likely the ancestor to Maize.

Pollen

microscopic particles produced by many seed-bearing plants and released as part of the fertilization process

Phytoliths

silicate mineral bodies which form inside many plants which preserve as microfossils of the plant structures and provide info on plant use by people and the natural vegetation of an area

Starch grains

microscopic grains of a complex carbohydrate found in certain plant species (seeds, tubers, and bulbs of plants)

Teosinte

wild Mexican grass and possible maize ancestor

Flotation

recovery method in which carbonized (burnt) plant remains are light and will float when sediment is dissolved in water

Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)

electronic instrument that uses electrons to form high-resolution images of plant remains and conduct high magnification of microscopic structures

Wild vs. Domesticated Wheat

wild wheat: brittle rachis and tough glume

domesticated wheat: tough rachis and brittle glume

Rachis

stem that connects the grain seed to the main plant stalk in cereals

Glume

the husk that covers and protects cereal grains

Coprolite

preserved human feces; gives insight into the diets of past human; what they ate, and how it affected their health.

Fort Ancient at Sunwatch Village

prairie restoration site in Ohio based on archaeobotanical analysis of remains since the preservation of many pits gave info on plant and animal utilization, seasonality and diet, and plant storage during shortages

Hinds Cave

site in Texas with incredible preservation of archaeobotanical remains in a dry cave from 7000 BP

How are faunal remains quantified?

MNI, NISP, meat weight

Archaeozoology

the study of animal remains from archaeological sites

What is the importance of archaeozoology?

1. can show which animals were hunted and eaten and in what proportion

2. can provide info on butchering techniques

What types of artifacts or evidence might be found to help interpret human-animal interactions?

bones, teeth, hair, antlers, scales

What did humans figure out about manipulating animals?

Humans selectively bred animals in order to rid wild animals of aggressive tendencies

NISP

Number of Identified Specimens: an estimate that records the total number of bones from an identified species

MNI

Minimum Number of Individuals: estimate based on counts of the number of unique skeletal parts

Meat Weight/Biomass

translation to the amount of biomass or meat for consumption

Vertebrates

animals with a bony endoskeleton and backbone i.e. mammals

Invertebrates

animals without a backbone i.e. mollusks and shellfish

Faunal remains

animal bones or remains

Domestication of plants and animals

alteration by humans of natural cycles and behavior of plants and animals

striking platform

place where force is applied to remove a flake

dorsal surface

the outer surface of the flake which shows previous flake scarring

core

prepared raw material that serves as first stage in tool making

ventral surface

fresh inner surface of a flake

conchoidal fractures

wave like ripples which appear in the stone from fracture mechanics

bulb of percussion

bulbar mass left from the cone of percussion

cortex

weathered exterior surface on stone raw materials

Law of Superposition

superimposed, layers or strata, the lower (deeper) being older unless layers are disturbed

stratigraphy

sequence of layers (strata) in the ground

strata

accumulation of layers of soil, sediments, refuse, building debris, etc. in the ground

handmade ceramic forming methods

pinch, coil, slab, paddle-and-anvil

coil method

ceramic forming method in which long ropes of clay are rolled out and used to build up the walls of the vessel

paddle-and-anvil method

ceramic forming method in which a hard object (the anvil) is held on the inside of a pot while the paddle (wood, stone, etc.) presses against the anvil on the outside to flatten and spread the clay material

slab method

ceramic forming method that involves the rolling of a slab of clay and further shaping it into a cylinder or the fitting of two slabs to make a cube

pinch method

ceramic forming method in which the clay is pinched together to form a vessel

molded ceramics

produced by pressing clay into prepared molds

wheel-thrown ceramics

pottery produced on a wheel

applique

decorative technique that involves adding clay to the outside of the vessel

impressions

decorative technique made with many different tools onto soft clay of an unfired pot

incision

decorative technique in which designs are cut into soft clay

punctuate

decorative technique in which small round sticks are pressed into clay to leave a series of circular depressions

painting

decorative technique in which there is an application of pigments

resist

decorative technique that involves the use of wax or another material to prevent the slip/glaze from covering the vessel

faunal analysis

1. subsistence strategies and adaptations

2. diet and dietary contributions

3. hunting practices

4. climate, resources, and climate change

5. value and preferences

6. seasonality and scheduling

7. butchering practices

8. ritual practices

9. domestication/extinction

microwear analysis

using microscopes to study the edge damage of stone tools in order to assign a function

ceramic petrography

useful microscopic technique that can help identify the physical composition of sherds

provenience studies

looking at ceramics and mineral composition to find evidence of social interaction, trade and exchange, and economy