unit zero

empiricism

The idea that knowledge is the result of experience and that scientific knowledge is developed through observation and experimentation.

humanism

The study of potential and personal growth.

psychoanalytic

Emphasizes the influence of the unconscious mind on behavior and explores how childhood experiences shape adult personality.

behaviorism

Focuses on observable behaviors and how they can be learned or unlearned through interactions with the environment.

psychology

The study of mental processes and behavior.

control

To modify inappropriate behavior.

curiosity

Asking questions.

skepticism

Sifting from reality and fantasy, demanding evidence.

humility

Accepting incorrect predictions and recognizing the value of learning from mistakes to foster growth and understanding.

critical thinking

Analyzing and evaluating information systematically, questioning assumptions, and considering alternative perspectives to make informed decisions.

hindsight bias

The tendency to believe after learning the outcome that one foresaw it.

gambler’s fallacy

The tendency to overestimate the occurrence of patterns in random data.

overconfidence

The tendency to overestimate your knowledge.

illusory correlation

The tendency to believe that variables have a relationship where none exists.

null hypothesis

A hypothesis that has to be able to be proven wrong.

theory

Using observation to explain behavior.

hypothesis

Predictions about behavior that can be tested.

social desirability bias

Providing answers that may be dishonest to seek approval.

self report survey

Survey method trying to affect the outcome of research; can have sampling bias or target the wrong group.

descriptive method

A technique used to gather detailed information about a subject or phenomenon without manipulating variables.

correlational method

Examines the relationship between two or more variables to determine if they are associated without implying causation.

experimental method

Involves the manipulation of one or more independent variables to observe the effect on a dependent variable.

case study

An in-depth investigation of a single individual, group, event, or community providing rich qualitative data.

naturalistic observation

Studying participants in their natural environment without interference to gather data on behaviors.

correlation coefficient

Indicates the strength and direction of a linear relationship between two variables.

extraneous/confounding variable

A variable that impacts the dependent variable not intended in the study.

experimental bias

Only rating aspects that prove the researcher’s hypothesis.

validity

The extent to which a test measures what it intends to.

Hawthorne effect

Modification of behavior in response to knowing they are being observed.

scientific attitude

Consists of curiosity, skepticism, and humility.

Francis Bacon

Known as the 'father of empiricism,' emphasized observation and experimentation as the basis of scientific knowledge.

John Locke

Argued that knowledge comes from experience and that the mind is shaped by sensory input.

modern empiricism

Knowledge comes from experience and observation and experimentation enables scientific knowledge.

Wilhem Wundt

Known as the 'father of psychology,' established the first psychology lab focusing on introspection.

structuralism

Focuses on breaking down mental processes into their most basic components.

Edward Bradford Titchener

Developed structuralism, focusing on introspection and breaking down mental processes.

functionalism

Emphasized studying the purpose of behavior and mental processes.

William James

Founded functionalism and studied how mental processes help individuals adapt to their environments.

Charles Darwin

Naturalist who proposed the theory of evolution by natural selection.

Mary Whiton Calkins

The first female president of the APA, known for her research on memory and self-psychology.

Margaret Floy Washburn

The first woman to earn a Ph.D. in psychology, known for her work in comparative psychology.

John B. Watson

Founder of behaviorism, who emphasized the study of observable behaviors.

B.F. Skinner

An influential behaviorist who developed the theory of operant conditioning.

Sigmund Freud

Developed psychoanalysis, focusing on the unconscious mind and childhood experiences.

psychoanalytic psychology

Focuses on the role of the unconscious mind and childhood experiences in shaping behavior.

humanistic psychology

Emphasizes individual growth, free will, and achieving one’s potential.

Carl Rogers

A founder of humanistic psychology, developed client-centered therapy.

Abraham Maslow

Proposed the hierarchy of needs and emphasized human potential.

cognitive psychology

The study of mental processes such as perception and problem-solving.

cognitive neuroscience

Study of brain activity linked to cognition.

Ivan Pavlov

Known for his work on classical conditioning with dogs.

Jean Piaget

Studied cognitive development in children, proposing stages of development.

nature-nurture issue

The debate over contributions of genetics and experience to behavior.

evolutionary psychology

Study of evolution in relation to behavior and mind.

behavior genetics

Study of genetic and environmental influences on behavior.

WEIRD cultures

Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic cultures.

positive psychology

Scientific study of human flourishing.

biopsychosocial approach

An integrated approach incorporating biological, psychological, and sociocultural perspectives.

behavioral

How we learn observable responses.

biological

How the body and brain enable emotions and experiences.

cognitive

How we encode, process, store, and retrieve information.

evolutionary

How natural selection of traits affects survival.

humanistic

How we achieve personal growth.

psychodynamic

How behavior springs from unconscious drives.

sociocultural

How behavior and thinking vary across situations and cultures.

testing effect

Enhanced memory after retrieving information rather than simply rereading.

SQ3R

A study method involving Survey, Question, Read, Retrieve, Review.

operational definition

A carefully worded statement of the exact procedure used in research.

sampling bias

A flawed sampling process resulting in an unrepresentative sample.

random sample

A sampling method where everyone has an equal chance of inclusion.

regression toward the mean

The tendency for extreme scores/events to fall back toward the average.

experimental group

Group exposed to treatment in an experiment.

control group

Group not exposed to treatment in an experiment.

placebo effect

Experimental results caused by participant expectations.

inferential statistics

Statistics used to make predictions and generalizations from sample data.

measures of variability

Statistics that describe the spread of data, such as range and standard deviation.

mean

The average of a set of scores.

median

The middle score in a set of scores.

mode

The number that appears most frequently in a data set.

range

The difference between the highest and lowest values in a data set.

effect size

The strength of the relationship between two variables.