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empiricism: the idea that knowledge is the result of experience and that scientific knowledge is developed through observation and experimentation

humanism: the study of potential and personal growth

psychoanalytic: emphasizes the influence of the unconscious mind on behavior, and explores how childhood experiences shape adult personality.

behaviorism: focuses on observable behaviors and how they can be learned or unlearned through interactions with the environment.

psychology: study of mental processes and behavior

control: modify inappropriate behavior

curiosity: asking questions

skepticism: sifting from reality and fantasy, demanding evidence

humility: accepting incorrect predictions and recognizing the value of learning from mistakes to foster growth and understanding.

critical thinking: analyzing and evaluating information systematically, questioning assumptions, and considering alternative perspectives to make informed decisions.

hindsight bias: tendency to believe after learning the outcome that one foresaw

gambler’s fallacy: tendency to overestimate occurrence of patterns of random data

overconfidence: tendency to overestimate your knowledge

illusory correlation: tendency to believe that variables have a relationship where none exists

null hypothesis: has to be able to be proven wrong

theory: using observation to explain behavior

hypothesis: predictions about behavior that can be tested

social desirability bias: providing answers that may be dishonest to seek approval

self report survey: trying to affect the outcome of research; sampling bias, target wrong group, failure to gather wrong participants

descriptive method: a technique used to gather detailed information about a subject or phenomenon without manipulating variables

correlational method: examines the relationship between two or more variables to determine if they are associated, without implying causation.

experimental method: involves the manipulation of one or more independent variables to observe the effect on a dependent variable, allowing for the establishment of cause-and-effect relationships.

case study: involves an in-depth investigation of a single individual, group, event, or community, providing rich qualitative data and insights into complex issues.

naturalistic observation: studying participants in their natural environment without interference, allowing researchers to gather data on behaviors and interactions in real-world settings.

correlation coefficient: indicates the strength and direction of a linear relationship between two variables, ranging from -1 to 1, where values closer to 1 signify a strong positive correlation, values closer to -1 signify a strong negative correlation, and values around 0 indicate no correlation.

extraneous/confounding variable: impacts dependent variable that isn’t for the independent variable

experimental bias: only rating aspects that prove a researcher’s hypothesis

validity: extent to which a test measures what it intends to

Hawthorne effect: modification of behavior in response to knowing they are being observed

scientific attitude: consists of curiosity, skepticism, and humility

Francis Bacon: Known as the "father of empiricism," emphasized observation and experimentation as the basis of scientific knowledge. influenced the development of the scientific method

John Locke: argued that knowledge comes from experience and that the mind is shaped by sensory input. key figure in empirircism.

modern empiricism: what we know comes from experience and observation and experimentation enable scientific knowledge

Wilhem Wundt: known as “father of psychology” established the first psychology lab, focused on introspection and studied conscious experiences scientifically

structualism: focuses on breaking down mental processes into their most basic components

edrard bradford titchener: developed structuralism, focusing on breaking down mental processes into basic components through introspection

functionalism: emphasized studying the purpose of behavior and mental processes

William james: founded functionalism, studying how mental processes help individuals adapt to their environments. Author of The Principles of Psychology.

Charles Darwin: Naturalist who proposed the theory of evolution by natural selection.

Mary Whiton Calkins: The first female president of the APA. She conducted pioneering research on memory and self-psychology despite facing gender discrimination.

Margaret Floy Washburn: The first woman to earn a Ph.D. in psychology. Known for her work in comparative psychology and her book The Animal Mind.

John B. Watson: Founder of behaviorism, emphasizing the study of observable behaviors over internal mental states. Famous for the Little Albert experiment.

B.F. Skinner: An influential behaviorist who developed the theory of operant conditioning, emphasizing that behaviors are shaped by rewards and punishments.

behaviorism: focuses on observable behaviors rather than internal mental processes. argue that all behaviors are learned through conditioning

Sigmund Freud: Developed psychoanalysis, focusing on the unconscious mind, defense mechanisms, and psychosexual stages of development. Wrote The Interpretation of Dreams.

psychoanalytic psychology: focuses on the role of the unconscious mind, childhood experiences, and repressed thoughts in shaping behavior

humanistic psychology: emphasizes individual growth, free will, and achieving one’s potential

Carl Rogers: A founder of humanistic psychology, developed client-centered therapy, emphasizing empathy, unconditional positive regard, and self-actualization.

Abraham Maslow: Proposed the hierarchy of needs, culminating in self-actualization. Emphasized human potential and positive qualities in psychological growth.

cognitive psychology: study of mental processes (perception, learning, remembering, thinking, communicating, and solving problems)

cognitive neuroscience: study of brain activity linked to cognition

Ivan Pavlov: Russian physiologist known for his work on classical conditioning, demonstrated in his experiments with dogs salivating to a bell.

Jean Piaget: Swiss psychologist who studied cognitive development in children. Proposed stages of development: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational.

nature-nurture issue: controversy over contributions that genes and experience make to development of psychological traits and behavior

evolutionary psychology: study of evolution of behavior and mind using natural selection

behavior genetics: study of relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior

WEIRD cultures: western, educated, industrialized, rich, and democratic

positive psychology: scientific study of human flourishing

biopsychosocial approach: an integrated that incorporates biological, psychological, and sociocultural approaches

behavioral: how we learn observable responses

biological: how body and brain enable emotions, memories, and sensory experiences

cognitive: how we encode, process, store, and retrieve info

evolutionary: how natural selection of traits has provided survival of genes

humanistic: how we achieve personal growth

psychodynamic: how behavior springs from unconscious drives and conflicts

sociocultural: how behavior and thinking vary across situations and cultures

testing effect: enhanced memory after retrieving rather than simply rereading

SQ3R: survey, question, read, retrieve, review

theory: explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors/events

operational definition: carefully worded statement of the exact procedure

descriptive methods: describe behaviors (case study, naturalistic observation, surveys)

correlational: find relationship between variables

experimental: manipulate variables

case study: examines one individual or group in depth

naturalistic observations: observing/recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without manipulation

survey: obtaining self-reported attitudes/behaviors of particular group

sampling bias: flawed sampling process that produces unrepresentative sample

random sample: everyone has equal chance of inclusion

regression toward the mean: tendency for extreme/unusual scores/events to fall back towards the average

experimental group: exposed to treatment

control group: not exposed to treatment

placebo effect: experimental results caused by expectations alone

validity: extent to which a test measures what its supposed to

inferencial stats: make predictions and generalizations about a population from sample data

measures of variability: range, standard deviation

mean: average of scores

median: number that falls in the middle numerically

mode: number that appears the most

range: distance from highest to lowest values

effect size: strength of relationship between two variables