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Histology
Study of tissues and their arrangement in organs
Tissues formed of cells and extracellular matrix
Matrix
Protein fibers and ground substance
Tissues are classified according to:
Types and functions of cells
Composition of matrix
Relative space filled by cells vs matrix
Classified into 4 major tissue categories:
Epithelial, connective, nervous, muscular
Embryonic Tissues
Three major tissue layers in embryos: Ectoderm, Endoderm, Mesoderm
Ectoderm (outer):
epidermis and nervous system
Endoderm (inner):
inner lining of digestive tract
Mesoderm (middle):
muscle, bones, blood and other connective tissue
Longitudinal section (I.s)
- Tissue cut on its long axis
Cross section (c.s. Or x.s.) or transverse section (t.s.)
- Tissue cut perpendicular to long axis of organ
Oblique section
- Tissue cut diagonal to long axis
Smear
- Tissue rubbed or spread across a slide
- Ex: Blood
Spread
- Cobwebby tissue laid out on a slide
- Ex: Areolar Tissue
Epithelial Tissue
Categorized by cell layers and cell shape
Simple squamous epithelium
Single layer of thin cells
Permits rapid diffusion or transport of materials
- Lung tissue; inner lining of blood vessels, (endothelium); outer lining of internal organs in abdominal cavity (mesothelium)
Simple cuboidal epithelium
Single layer square cells
Key roles in secretion and absorption
- Mammary, salivary and sweat glands
- Kidney tubules
- Thyroid gland
Simple Columnar Epithelium
Single layer tall, narrow cells
- Often with Brush Border
- Goblet cells common
Big for absorption, still some secretion
- Inner lining of small intestine and stomach
Pseudostratified Epithelium
Appears multilayered but all cells touch basement membrane
- Often ciliated
- Goblet cells common
- Secretes and propels mucus
- Trachea, larynx (respiratory tract)
Stratified Squamous Epithelium (Keratinized)
Many layers (30+)
- Basal cells cuboidal or columnar
- Apical cells are flat
- Surface layer cells dead
Resists abrasion, water loss, penetration by pathogens
Only place we will see this is Epidermis of the skin
Stratified Squamous Epithelium (Non-Keratinized)
Many layers (20+)
- Lacks surface layer of dead keratinized cells
Resists abrasion, pathogens
- Vaginal walls
- Oral mucosa
Urothelium (Transitional Epithelium)
Surface cells charge from round to flat when stretched
Allow urinary tract organs to expand when filled
- Kidney ureter, urinary bladder
Nervous Tissue
- Specialized for electrical/chemical signaling
Two major types
- Brain, spinal cord (CNS tissue)
- Nerves (PNS tissue)
Neurons
detect stimuli and send signals
Neuroglia
Help neurons carry out functions
Muscular Tissue
Cells contract when stimulated
- Exert physical force on other tissues and organs
Basis of regional and whole-body movement:
- Breathing
- Blood circulation
- Digestion
- Excretion
Help generate body heat
Three types distinguished by:
- Dominant cell shape
- Extent to which each is voluntary or involuntary
Presence/absence of striations
Skeletal Muscles
Voluntary muscle tissue
- Most attached to bone
- Made of long, thin striated cells *muscle fibers(
- Contain multiple nucleus
Cardiac Muscle
Involuntary muscles cells of heart (cardiocytes)
Striated, but shorter than muscle fibers
Single nucleus surrounded by glycogen
Adjacent cells connected by intercalated discs
Smooth Muscle
Short, unstriated, involuntary fusiform cells
- One central nucleus
Found in most organs: most important in digestive, respiratory, urinary tracts
Connective Tissue: Overview
Most abundant and histology variable primary tissue
Binds supports, and protects organs
Often highly vascular
Cells fill less space in ECM
Defined by cell compactness, major fiber type and orientation, and extent of matrix
Fiber
Collagen Fibers, Elastic Fiber, Reticular Fiber
Collagen fibers
made of collagen
Elastic fibers
made of elastin
- thinner than collagen fibers
- allow tissues to stretch and recoil
Reticular Fiber
thin collagen fiber with glycoprotein
- Important in Spleen and lymph nodes
Ground substance
Gelatinous/rubbery consistency
- Absorbs compressive forces
- Binds cells and extracellular molecules
- Slow down pathogenic organisms
Fibrous Connective Tissue
Fiber often loosely organized, abundant blood vessels, and much empty space
Found in almost every part of the body
Fibroblast
cells that produce fibers and ground substance
Types of fibrous tissue
Loose connective tissue
Matrix mostly ground substance
Lots of empty space between cells
Areolar and Reticular
Dense Connective Tissue
Matrix mostly closely-packed fibers
Areolar Tissue
Found throughout body
Loosely organized fibers, many blood vessels, substantial empty space
- Upper layers of Dermis
- Between muscles
Reticular Tissue
Mesh of reticular fibers, fibroblasts, WBCs
Framework for lymphatic organs
- Lymph nodes, spleen, bone marrow
Dense Regular Connective Tissue
Collagen fibers tightly packed in parallel
- Stresses imposed in predictable directions
- Tendons and ligaments
Fibroblasts abundant, but few other types
Few blood vessels, slow to heal
Dense Irregular Connective Tissue
Collagen fibers tightly packed randomly
- Resists stresses from unpredictable directions
Many blood vessels
- Lower layer of dermis
Adipose Tissue
Fat tissue: contains many adipocytes
- Primary energy reservoir (triglycerides)
- Source of thermal insulation
- Anchors and cushion organs
- Contributes to body shape
Number of adipocytes stable in adults
- Individual cells shrink or swell
Yellow Adipose Tissue
Yellow color when fresh
- Subcutaneous fat (hypodermis) , breasts, mesenteries of abdominal cavity
Preserved cells mostly empty
- Triglycerides dissolve
- little cytoplasm
Brown Adipose Tissue
Heat generating tissue found in shoulders, upper back and kidneys
- 6% in infants; less in adults
Brown color from blood vessels, mitochondria
- Multiple globules of small triglyceride
Cartilage
Stiff connective tissue with flexible, rubbery matrix
- Few blood vessels, slow to heal
Chondroblasts
Chondrocytes
Chondroblasts:
produce extracellular matrix
Chondrocytes:
former chondroblast locked into space (lacuna) surrounded by matrix
Hyaline Cartilage
Clear, glassy appearance
- Very fine collagen fibers
Eases movement of joints
- Articular Cartilage
- Fetal Skeleton
Fibrocartilage
Bundles of large, parallel collagenous fibers around chondrocytes
Resists compression; absorb shock
- Pubic Symphysis
- Intervertebral discs
Elastic Cartilage
Elastic fibers around chondrocytes
Provides flexible, elastic support
- External Ear
- Epiglottis: Found at top of our larynx/voice box, folds down
Osseous Tissue (bone)
Mineralized connective tissue that forms internal bony skeleton
Organ bones composed of two major tissue types
- Compact bone
- Spongy bone
Compact Bone
Dense tissue forming outer layer of organ bone
Arranged in cylinders around longitudinal central canals
- Blood vessels, nerve pass through canals
Bone deposited by osteocytes in onion-like layers
Osteocytes deposit bone within lacunae
- linked to neighboring cells through canaliculi and gap junctions
Spongy (Trabecular) Bone
Spongy network of thin plates of bone
- Imparts strength with lightness to skeleton
- Surrounds bone marrow
- Covered by Compact Bone
Blood
Fluid connective tissue
- Transports cells, dissolved materials around body
Plasma: liquid ground substance
Forced elements: blood cells and cell fragments
- Erythrocytes (RBCs), Leukocytes (WBCs), and Platelets (cell fragments)
Cell Junctions
Anchor cells to each other or their matrix
Resist physical Stress
Support intercellular communication
Tight Junctions
Cell-adhesion protein binds cell tightly, sealing off intercellular space
- Materials pass through cells, not around them
- Block pathogenic organisms
Common in epithelia, especially in digestive tract
Desmosomes
Intermediate filaments linked to cell-adhesion proteins
- Keeps cells from pulling apart; resist stress
- Hold cells more loosely than tight junctions
Common in epidermis, cardiac muscle
Hemi-desmosomes
Anchor basal cells of epithelium to basement membrane
Gap Junctions
Formed by connexons
- Six transmembrane proteins arranged like orange segments
- Pore allows materials to pass from one cell to the next
Common in cardiac, smooth muscle
- Help ensure uniform contraction
Glands
Organs or cells releasing products for use in other organs or elimination from body
- Mostly formed of epithelia, often surrounded by connective tissue
Exocrine Glands
Delivered to skin surface or internal organ lumen by duct
- Sweat, mammary, pancreatic glands
Endocrine Glands
Secrete products (hormones) directly into bloodstream
- Lack contact with surface and have no ducts
Thyroid, adrenal, and pituitary glands
Merocrine (Eccrine) Glands
Releases secretions from vesicles by exocytosis at plasma membrane
Example: tear glands, most sweat glands
Apocrine Glands
Release secretions in lipid enclosed droplets
Mammary Glands
Holocrine Glands
Cells produce product, then disintegrate
Secretion is mixture of cell fragments and synthesized substance
- Ex: sebaceous glands
Cutaneous Membrane (skin)
Outer boyd membrane
Keratinized stratified squamous epithelium (epidermis); connective tissue layer (dermis)
Largest membrane; serves protective functions
Mucous Membrane (mucosa)
Line internal passages open to the external environment
Inner epithelium; middle areolar tissue; and outer smooth muscle
Absorptive, secretory, and productive functions
Digestive, respiratory, urinary, reproductive tracts
Serous Membrane (Serosa)
Covers organs and lines walls of body cavities
Produces serous fluid that reduces muscle friction
Simple squamous epithelium and areolar tissue
Ex: digestive tract; pericardium of the heart
Integumentary system
Skin (integument): largest organ in the body
- about 10-15% body mass
Accessory organs: hair, nails, skin glands
Skin is the most vulnerable organ
- Exposed to radiation, trauma, infection, and chemicals*
- Receives more medical treatment than any other organ
Dermatology: Study and medical treatment of the integumentary system.
Functions of Integumentary System
Protection
- Antimicrobial environment
- Protection from mechanical damage
- Blocks UV radiation and toxic chemicals
Regulates body water
Helps make Vitamin D
- Important in bone physiology
Sensation
- Touch, pain, heat, cold
Thermoregulation
- Sweating
- Blood flow in the skin
Nonverbal communication
- Facial muscles
- Condition of skin, hair, nails
Epidermis
Keratinized stratified squamous epithelium
- Surface layer of dead cells
- Lacks blood vessels
- Few nerve endings
Dermis
Connective tissue layer deep to the epidermis
- Rich in blood vessels, nerves, and glands
- Areolar and dense irregular connective tissue
- Support hair follicles, nail roots, facial muscles
- Upper papillary layer and deeper reticular layer
Dermal papillae
- Upward extensions of dermis at boundary of epidermis
- Give rise to friction ridges (fingerprints)
Hypodermis
Connective tissue beneath dermis (subcutaneous tissue)
- Not part of skin but physically linked to it
- Mostly adipose tissue
- Common site of drug injection, contains rich blood vessels
Keratinocytes
Synthesize Keratin
Comprise most epidermal cells
Found in all layers of epidermis
Produced by all cells
Epidermal Stem Cells
Give rise to Keratinocytes
Melanocytes
Produce pigment melanin
- Keratinocytes store particles around nucleus
- Absorbs UV radiation, protecting DNA
- Induces skin color
Found only in stratum basale
Tactile (Merkel Cells)
Touch Receptor
- Underlying nerve fiber carries touch signals
Found only in stratum basale
Dendritic (Langerhans) Cells
Immune cell derived from monocytes (WBC)
- originate in bone marrow; migrate to epidermis
Guard against invading pathogens and toxins
Found in stratum spinosum and granulosum
Epidermal Layers
Stratum Basale, Stratum Spinosum, Stratum Granulosum, Stratum Lucidum, Stratum Corneum
Stratum Basale:
bottom single cell layer
- Mostly keratinocytes, but stem cells, melanocytes, tactile cells also present
Stratum Spinosum:
multiple layers of keratinocytes
- Cells shrink during tissue preservation; linkage by desmosomes gives spiny appearance
Stratum granulosum:
3-5 layers of kratinocytes containing many dark-staining granules
- Secrete protein that bundles keratin
- Helps in formation of epidermal water barrier
Stratum Lucidum
thin layer of dead keratinocytes
- seen only in thick skin
Stratum corneum
Less than or equal to 30 layers of dead keratinocytes
- Resists abrasion, water loss, penetration by pathogenic organisms; surface cells exfoliate
Keratinocyte Life History
Originate from stem cells in stratum basale
New keratinocytes push older cells up
- Lack of nutrients inhibits cell division > 1-2 cell layers from dermis
- Produce keratin filaments and lipid-filled membrane-coating vesicles
In stratum granulosum, epidermal water barrier forms
- Keratin tied into bundles and enclosed into sacs
- membrane-coating vesicles release waterproofing lipids onto cell surface
Cells above stratum granulosum die from lack of nutrients
Dead cells exfoliate from stratum corneum as dander cells migrate to skin surface in 30-40 days
Sustained stress on skin results in thickening of stratum corneum
- Corns or callouses
Pigments: Melanin
Most significant factor in human skin solar
- Melanin granules released by melanocytes accumulate around nuclei of keratinocytes
Two main types:
- Eumelanin (brownish black pigment)
- Phaeomelanin (red-yellow pigment)
Variation in human skin color primarily due to differences in:
- Amount of melanin produced
- Distribution of melanin within keratinocytes
- Differences in the decay rate of melanin
- Exposure to ultraviolet (UV) rays of sunlight
- induces skin tanning
UV Effects on Skin
UV: high energy radiation in sunlight
- Stimulates Vitamin D produce
- Damages DNA and folate and folat (Vitamin B9)
Melanin absorbs UV, protecting against its harmful
UV most intense at equator, weekend towards poles
Human Population Variation
Legacy of variation among historical populations in the intensity of UV exposure
Pigments: Hemoglobin
Red pigment of red blood cells
- Adds reddish hue to the skin (e.g., lips)
Pigment: Carotene
Yellow pigment acquired from vegetables
Not produced naturally by body
Concentrates in stratum corneum
Hair
Filament of mostly dead keratinized cells
Found over most body surfaces but absent from:
- Palms and soles
- Ventral, lateral surfaces of digits
- Lips, nipples, parts of genitals
Structure of Hair
Bulb: swelling where hair arises (usually in the dermis)
- Only region in hair with living cells
Root: hair between the bulb and surface
Shaft: Portion above skin surface
Anatomy of the Hair Bulb:
Dermal papilla
- Bud of connective tissue encased by bulb
- Provides nutrition for hair
Hair matrix
- Mitotic cells above dermal papilla
- All cells above are dead
Anatomy of the Hair Root
Medulla: inner core
- Loosely arranged cells and air spaces
Cortex: middle layer
- Elongated cells
- Majority of hair mass
Cuticle: Outer Layer
- Thin, scaly cells
- Grip, hair follicle; resist removal
Hair Texture
Texture due to cross-sectional shape
- Straight hair is round
- Curly hair is flat
Hair color
Brown/Black hair has mostly eumelanin
Blond/Red hair has mostly phaeomelanin
Gray/White hair lacks melanin and has medulla full of large air pockets
Function of Hair in Humans
Different types of remaining hair probably have different functions
- Parasite detection (body hair)
- Retention of heat (scalp)
- Protection against sunburn (scalp)
- Protect against entry of foreign particles (nose, ear)
- Signal Reproductive status (beard, axilla, pubic hair)
- Enhance facial expression and nonverbal communication (eyebrows, eyelashes)
Cutaneous Glands
Skin has five major types of glands
Merocrine Sweat Glands/Major Functions
Evaporative cooling of skin
Waste removal
Generates antibacterial acid mantle of skin