Studied by 23 people
How much of the Earth’s surface does water cover?
71%
What % of water is undrinkable saltwater?
96.5%+
What % of freshwater is in ice caps and glaciers?
70%
What % of freshwater is in groundwater?
29%
Reservoir turnover time of oceans
3,600 years
Reservoir turnover time of ice caps
15,000 years
Reservoir turnover time of rivers and lakes
2 weeks to 10 years
How much of the hydrological cycle is the ocean?
>90%
How many days a year does it rain for in the UK on average?
156.2
Average UK annual rainfall
1,154mm
Mississippi drainage basin
World’s 3rd largest watershed
Drainage basin for 41% of the USA
Fossil water in the Sahara
Extends across an area double the size of mainland France
Holds more than 30,000km2 water
Water has accumulated over the last 1,000,000 years
Supports Tunisia, Algeria, Libya etc
Estimated recharge is 40% of withdrawals
Amazon river regime
6,308km long and has a drainage basin of 6 million km2
Major influences are rainforest climate, seasonal precipitation and high EVT
Peak discharge in April, May and the lowest discharge is September
Linked to wet and dry seasons and snowmelt from the Andes
Human influences - large dams for cities and HEP
Yukon river regime
3,540km long and drainage basin of 850,000km2
Tundra climate and flows through a mountain range
Peak discharge May, June with a dramatic increase due to snowmelt
Low from December to May due to frozen precipitation - very large seasonal variability
Few human influences but a little HEP
Nile river regime
Regime changed significantly by the construction of the Aswan Dam in 1970
River flow reduced by 65% and became regulated between seasons so flood peaks in September were greatly reduced
Austwick Beck
Flashy hydrograph - short lag time with a high peak discharge - flash flood
Shale rock - less permeable
Many tributaries mean at Austwick - high drainage basin
Circular drainage basin
Small amount of woodland - less interception
Clapham Beck
Subdued hydrograph
No tributaries
Elongated drainage basin
Large woodland around the stream just before Clapham - interception, absorption, slows down
Gritstone and sandstone and limestone - more permeable
Artificial lake - more surface storage
What % of the Amazon has been deforested?
20% in the last 50 years
How much intercepted water in a forest is returned to the atmosphere by EVT?
75% which is reduced to 25% when forest is cleared
By how much has the volume of the Aral Sea shrunk by?
80%
What % of global food production depends on the depletion of groundwater?
10%
How many people in the lower Mekong river basin depend on agriculture for their livelihood?
65 million+
Which areas of the UK are very vulnerable in extreme weather?
York, Manchester, Leeds due to dense populations and a high, quick peak discharge
Area of Amazon drainage basin
6.1 million km2
Largest drainage basin in the world
What countries is the Amazon located in?
7: Brazil, Bolivia, Peru, Colombia, Ecuador, Venezuela, Guyana
What % of fresh water entering the oceans each day comes from the Amazon?
15%
Treaty for Amazonian Cooperation
Example of an agreement between countries to protect the Amazon
Signed by the 7 drainage basin countries and Suriname
Emphasise the need to improve the QoL of Amazonian people and preserve the natural environment as economic development takes place
Role of the Amazon basin for global hydrology
Acts as a vapour sink for moisture coming in from the Atlantic - humid air produces precipitation and convective clouds
By how much is deforestation delaying the onset of the rainy season in a region of the Amazon?
6 days per decade
Soil infiltration rates
Sandy - 3-12 mm/hr
Less permeable clay - 0-4 mm/hr
Vegetation infiltration rates
Forests - 50 mm/hr
Pasture 13-23 mm/hr
Economic loss of 1992 El Nino
$290 million on the Pacific coast of South America in fisheries
What % of all health facilities in Peru were damaged in the 1997 El Nino?
10%
Economic impact of the 1982 El Nino in Eastern Australia
$2000 million loss in agricultural production
After how many years does deforested soil become infertile?
5 to 8 years
Amazon dam building
Manaus
HEP - Baseload compliancy helps industry
Reduces natural variability in the river regime
No flooding
Destroys wetlands
2024 January Nottingham flooding
80% of average January rainfall fell in 4 days
Specific drough definition
3+ months with less than 50% of average rain
What % of the planet has drought exposure?
38%
This land area has 70% of the global population
When was the strongest ever El Nino?
1997
1998 was the strongest ever La Nina
What % of Earth’s surface do wetlands cover?
10%
Human contributors to and impacts of desertification in the Sahel
Poverty and civil war drove people onto marginal land
Increased rural population increased pressure for food
Acts as a positive feedback loop enhancing impacts of drought
Obstructions to pastoral migration and encroachment of farmlands on grazing areas impacted the socio-economic conditions of nomadic communities
Development of cotton growing on farms reduced grazing areas
1999/2000 Ethiopia and Eritrean famine/drought
How many people needed assistance for food in the 1999/2000 Ethiopian/Eritrean famine?
10 million
What % of water falls in the summer in the Sahel?
85%
Australia Big Dry
2006
Affected more than 50% farmlands, including an area that provides 50% of agriculture
River Murray had been overextracted
High per capita consumption of water
Many farms rely on irrigation
Low, highly variable rain
Droughts vary massively
Many droughts link to El Nino
Since 1970s, the East has become drier
How much of Australia is affected by drought in any given year?
30%
Human factors contributing to 2022 Pakistan flood risk
Anthropogenic climate change
Lack of resources for aid organisations
Not enough medical camps
Government slow to act
Human factors contributing to 2010 Pakistan floods
Nearly 70% of Pakistan’s population worked in the agricultural sector and so lived close to the rivers for irrigation
Rural communities flooded so people lost homes and livelihoods
Urban population poorer than rural so Karachi was highly affected as water pooled and could not freely flow
Poverty reduced people’s ability to evacuate
2010 floods surpassed any preventative measures which meant these measures were weakened already before floods in 2011
Deforestation and illegal logging
Social and economic impacts of 2022 Pakistan floods
Affected 33 million people
More than 1,700 died
28,000 schools and health clinics damaged
Economic loss of $30bn
4 million hectares of agricultural land damaged
800,000 cattle and livestock died
40% of children in affected areas had stunted growth
25% of children in affected areas were underweight
Malaria, dengue fever, diarrhoea
Social and economic impacts of 2010 Pakistan floods
More than 20 million people affected
1.2 million homes damaged
1,600 deaths
11,000 schools closed
Losses of $1bn+ in the agricultural sector
3.6 million hectares of agricultural land destroyed
Causes of 2007 UK flooding
Rain in June and July was 20% higher than ever seen before
On 25th June, the month’s rainfall fell in 1 day
Jet stream did not move as normal (La Nina) so bad weather stayed over Britain
Causes of 2015 flooding
December 2015 was the wettest month and second wettest winter since 1910 in the UK
Record maximum peak flows in North England
Socioeconomic impacts of the 2007 flooding
Estimated £3bn of flood damage covered by insurance and £3bn not covered by insurance
500,000 homes affected nationwide
In Hull, 10,000 homes were damaged
340,000 people left without running water for a week in Gloucestershire
Cost of repairing roads in Gloucestershire was £25 million
Socioeconomic impacts of 2015 flooding
5,200 homes across Cumbria and Lancashire flooded
43,000 homes in North-East England had no power
2 people killed
£500m damage across Cumbria
1,000 evacuated in Cumbria
40 schools in Cumbria closed
What % of rising sea levels is ice melt and thermal expansion?
Ice melt - 40%
Thermal expansion - 60%
Major water-related events 2022 examples
China - heatwave led to flash floods and low levels in the Yangtze
Australia - high rainfall caused flood events
Brazil - Intense rainfall, causing flash floods and landslides
Europe - hot summer led to flash droughts and low river levels
How much more water does warm air store?
7% per degree C of warming
How many is La Ninas in a row by 2022?
2022 was the third La Nina in a row
What % of the water cycle happens over the ocean?
90%
What % of the severity of Western USA and North Mexico droughts is due to global warming?
46%
When did most global temperature and climate records begin?
1700s and 1800s
What % of wetlands have been lost?
85%
How many people live in water stress?
733 million+
What % of countries have trans-boundary water agreements?
25% e.g. Nile
Global freshwater usage
22% industrial
6% household
2% drinking water
70% agricultural
Places with water availability issues
Mexico - pesticides and fertilisers
Arizona - irrigation increases salinity
Bangladesh - aquifers overdrawn
Mexico City - ground subsidence
Pakistan - excessive pumping, wells drying out
NE China - industrial pollution
California - saltwater incursion
How many illegal wells in Pakistan and India?
3 million
Leading to a falling water table
Why does Japan use a lot of water?
Developing high tech products e.g. laptops
Cost of water variations
50L costs 0.1% of typical daily salary in the UK
50L costs 108% of typical daily salary in Cambodia
50L costs 45% of typical daily salary in India
What % of its available blue water supplies does Saudi Arabia use?
104%
What % of Egypt’s population live within 1 mile of the Nile?
80%
How many people had to move to allow the construction of the Three Gorges Dam?
1.3 million
How many people use contaminated water daily in China?
300 million
What % of major lakes and coastal zones in China are highly polluted?
75% major lakes
25% coastal zones
Chinese cancer cluster villages
Liver + digestive cancers cause up to 80% of deaths - water pollution
How many people worldwide have some signs of arsenic poisoning from drinking water?
137 million in 70 countries
What % of tube wells in Bangladesh are unsafe due to arsenic poisoning?
20%
How much water do we each need to meet basic human needs?
1000m3 per year
This can be met by 60% of global accessible freshwater supplies
How much of the global population will be water vulnerable by 2025?
50%
What % of the world’s water supplies is in 10 countries?
60%
What % of the world’s population live in areas receiving 25% of annual rainfall?
66%
How many people will be experiencing water stress by 2050?
4 billion
How much water does the average Californian use per day?
181 gallons
More water than any other US state - US average is 80-100 gallons
California water usage
60.7% irrigation
16.6% public supply
1.0% industrial
How wide is the coastal zone in which most of California’s water falls?
250km wide
How much water does South and Far-East California receive?
Under 100mm rainfall due to the rain shadow of the Sierra Nevada mountains
How much of the annual rainfall in California falls between November and March?
3.5% - seasonal shortages
California population growth
2 million in 1900s to 39.54 million in 2020
Spatial imbalance of water in California
75% of demand from south of Sacramento but 75% of rainfall in the North
Losses to the agricultural sector because of severe drought in California in 2021
Sector decreased by $1.2 billion and lost 8700 farm jobs
How many acres of farmland in California may need to be taken out of cultivation by 2040?
0.5 million acres in order to stabilise aquifers
Which species of salmon have been impacted by overextraction of the Shasta and Scott rivers?
Chinook and Coho
Solutions for California’s water shortages
Individuals and companies reduce their water use
More efficient irrigation methods
Irrigate less land e.g. gardens, golf courses, parks
Recycling wasterwater
Storm water capture
Desalination
Changes to water rights and usage laws
How many people live without access to clean water?
1 billion
How many people live without sanitation?
2.5 billion
New York water cost
80 cents per 1000L
Baranquilla water cost
$5.6 per 1000L
Lack of infrastructure
When was water privatised in the UK?
70s and 80s
Due to the neo-liberal view popularised by Thatcher
Water would be best managed by private companies as there would be a profit motive for efficiency, investment and conservation
Role of World Bank and the IMF in water privatisation
Structural Adjustment Programmes to help developing countries overcome debt
Part of this included the privatisation of utilities including water
TNCs from western powers often take over these utilities - fair?
Cochabamba privatisation (Bolivia)
In 1999 water supply was privatised but in 2000 this was undone
Prior to the privatisation, only 57% of the population was covered by gov. water
There was 50% leakage, rationing and a lack of investment
Dependency on private wells, vendors and carriers
The privatisation increased water price by 35% but the service quality didn’t improve
There were riots, protests and violence in response - 12+ people died
80,000 people occupied the main square
The privatisation gave the water company a monopoly over all water infrastructure, including the informal supplies
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