AP Gov - Unit 3: Linkage Institutions

Mobilization and education of voters (prompt: role the party plays in each, and what factors limit their influence)

enc. citizens to participate in elections, prov info abt their candidates + policies, organize get-out-the-vote efforts – limited by partisan polarization bcs it becomes hard to appeal to a broad range of citizens

Party platforms (prompt: role the party plays in each, and what factors limit their influence)

outline their position on policy issues; create a clear statement of their ideologies and goals → help voters understand what policies they can expect if a party is elected; guide party members + candidates to align their positions w/ party principles – Parties may have limited control over how their messages are portrayed in the media

Candidate recruitment (prompt: role the party plays in each, and what factors limit their influence)

chose indiv to run for pol. office; pick candidates who align w/ party values + have a good chance of winning (attractive characteristics); recruit indiv. for local to national elections; prov supp. and resources to candidates
– Parties may face challenges in finding candidates who can win in certain districts or regions

Campaign management (+ fundraising and media) (prompt: role the party plays in each, and what factors limit their influence)

manage strategies, fundraising efforts, advertising, and voter outreach; incl. Managers, consultants, and volunteers; coordinate campaign activities at all levels of government – limited financial resources can hinder a party's ability to run effective campaigns, especially at the grassroots level

Committee and party leadership systems in legislatures (prompt: role the party plays in each, and what factors limit their influence)

org. committees focus on specific policy areas/issues; allow party policies + ideologies to be expressed; leadership (speaker of the house, senate majority leader) set agenda, manage party members, and negotiate w/ opposing party – limited by Internal divisions within a party

Party era

A time dominated by one party – The New Deal Era where the dem; party held power under FDR

Critical election

electoral realignment where new issues emerge, new coalitions replace old ones, and the majority is often displaced by the minority

• EX: the election of 1860 (lincoln) → civil war → realignment of parties

Regional Realignment

specific geographic region within a country shifts its political allegiance from one party to another

• EX southern realignment in 20th century where dem. southern states shifted to the rep. party due to civil rights issues

Dealignment

a large portion of the electorate abandons its prev. partisan affiliation, w/o developing a new one

• EX growing number of voters identifying as independents > aligning w/ a party

Divided government

control of the executive branch and legislative branch is split between two political parties

• EX republican pres. GWB had a democratic controlled congress

Third party

political parties other than the two dominant parties (D&R)

• EX. the libertarian and green party have run candidates in elections to advocate for policy issues

Party polarization

the growing gap between the stands of the parties policy issues

• EX. R&D have contrasting views on healthcare, immigration, and climate change

Local party organization level (prompt: how parties modify their policies and messaging to appeal to diff demographic coalitions)

estb. a strong presence within the local community by attending local events, town hall meetings, and neighborhood gatherings; choose local candidates who understand community needs; address local issues; be culturally sensitive/respect cultural div.; conduct demographic research; use local media outlets (newspaper, radio, online platforms); use outreach teams; partner w/ Local organizations

State party organization level (prompt: how parties modify their policies and messaging to appeal to diff demographic coalitions)

base policies on whether a state is rural/ag based vs. urban/infrastructure based; understand demographic composition; engage w/ state + local leaders; coalition building w/ interest gps, advocacy organizations, and community leaders; implement. state level issues (education)

National party organization level (prompt: how parties modify their policies and messaging to appeal to diff demographic coalitions)

(including coalitions) use broad based policy platforms that address key national issues affecting a wide range of citizens; emph. policies that benefit specific groups (veterans, seniors, young adults); develop messaging that resonates with concerns of citizens regardless of their location within the country; economic policies that promote prosperity and job growth on a national scale (infrastructure investment, tax reform, economic stability); demonstrate readiness to respond to national crises and emergencies; aim to improve quality and access of healthcare and education

1800 election

thomas jefferson (D-R) > john adams (fed); first peaceful transfer of power; end of first party system

1860 election (prompt: how the election changed the structure of the political party and/or realignment that occurred)

lincoln (republican); significant realignment; beginning of the republican party's ascendancy, while the democratic party faced internal divisions

1896 election (prompt: how the election changed the structure of the political party and/or realignment that occurred)

william mckinley (R) > william jennings (D-Populist); solidifies R dom. for decades; realignment as the R. party became the part of industrialization/ business interest while D. associated with agrarian and populist elements

1932 election (prompt: how the election changed the structure of the political party and/or realignment that occurred)

FDR (D) > hoover (R) ; new deal; realignment as the Democratic Party became the party of the New Deal, social welfare, and liberal reforms, while the Republican Party faced a period of diminished influence

1968 election (prompt: how the election changed the structure of the political party and/or realignment that occurred)

Nixon (R) > Hubert (D); strong third party performance from Wallace (independent) did not result in an immediate realignment but signaled the beginning of a period of political polarization and realignment in the South; It highlighted issues of race and civil rights.

2016 election (prompt: how the election changed the structure of the political party and/or realignment that occurred)

Donald Trump (R) > Hillary Clinton (D); demonstrated the appeal of populism and anti-establishment sentiments; It contributed to the ongoing debate about the direction of the Republican Party, with some arguing for a more populist and nationalist agenda.

Limited Access to Resources (prompt: how it limits success of third parties)

Third parties typically have less access to financial resources, media coverage, and campaign infrastructure compared to major parties

Lack of Name Recognition (prompt: how it limits success of third parties)

Third-party candidates often lack the name recognition and visibility that major-party candidates have

Winner-Takes-All Rules (prompt: how it limits success of third parties)

Winner-takes-all rules in many electoral systems mean that even if a third-party candidate receives a sig nificant share of the vote, they may not win any seats or representation

Limited Inclusion in Debates (prompt: how it limits success of third parties)

Third-party candidates are often excluded from televised debates and media coverage

Strategic Voting (prompt: how it limits success of third parties)

Many voters engage in strategic voting, choosing to vote for a major-party candidate who they believe has a better chance of winning, rather than their preferred third-party candidate

Ideological Polarization (prompt: how it limits success of third parties)

In highly polarized political environments, third parties that do not align closely with one of the major parties may struggle to find a significant base of support

Co-optation of Issues (prompt: how major parties overshadow third parties)

When major parties adopt popular positions or policies advocated by third parties, it can reduce the uniqueness of the third-party's platform; Voters may perceive less of a need to support the third party when they can find similar positions within a major party – EX

Media Coverage and Attention: (prompt: how major parties overshadow third parties)

When major parties incorporate third-party issues into their platforms, they may receive even more coverage, making it harder for third-party candidates to get their message out

Electoral Competition (how major parties overshadow third parties)

In some cases, major parties may adapt to incorporate third-party positions as a way to neutralize the threat of a third-party candidate; they seek to prevent third-party candidates from gaining electoral traction

Interest Group

organized association of individuals, organizations, or businesses that share a common interest, goal, or concern and seek to influence government policies, decisions, and actions in their favor

Political Parties (jobs vs. interest groups)

nominate candidates, run campaigns, give cues to voters, articulate policy, coordinate policy, educate voters and officeholders

Interest groups (jobs vs. political parties)

draft legislation, Mobilizing membership to apply pressure on legislators and government policies

Both Political Parties and Interest Groups’ Jobs

articulate policy, educate voters and office holders

Inequality of political and economic resources (prompt: how interest groups influence in elections and policymaking may be affected)

greater financial resource = more influence; able to fund extensive lobbying, political contributions, and advocacy campaigns

Unequal access to decision makers (iron triangles v. issue networks) (prompt: how interest groups influence in elections and policymaking may be affected)

Iron triangles (close relationships among interest groups, congressional committees, and government agencies) → privileged access to policymakers for interest groups that enhance their influence; issue networks (loosely connected organizations w/ common interests) involve a broader range of actors → diverse access to decision makers

“Free ride problem” (prompt: how interest groups influence in elections and policymaking may be affected)

free riders (benefit from groups advocacy efforts w/o joining/contributing) → limit interest group resources and effectiveness

Single issue groups (prompt: how interest groups influence in elections and policymaking may be affected)

Single-issue groups focus exclusively on a particular policy or cause; have limited influence on broader issues but are effective in mobilizing support and resources for their specific concern; more influence in elections from passionate supporters; work closely with lawmakers who share their policy objectives

Professional organizations(Am. Medical assoc) (prompt: how interest groups influence in elections and policymaking may be affected)

wield substantial influence by advocating for policies that benefit their members' interests and expertise (mobilization of members); inc. influence w/ expertise and credibility in their respective fields; establish PACs; foster networking opportunities

Ideological/Social Movements (civil rights/equality igs) (prompt: how interest groups influence in elections and policymaking may be affected)

mobilizing grassroots support and shaping public opinion

Protest movements (prompt: how interest groups influence in elections and policymaking may be affected)

bring attention to specific issues, spark public debate, emphasize new issues, and influence policymakers' responses; engage in direct lobbying and advocacy to push for legislative or policy changes; exert public pressure

Economic Interest Groups (labor unions/ trade associations) (prompt: how interest groups influence in elections and policymaking may be affected)

have substantial resources and political influence; advocate for policies that affect industries and economic sectors; establish PACs to support agenda; increased influence due to strong lobbying efforts

Environmental Interest Groups (prompt: how interest groups influence in elections and policymaking may be affected)

influence regulations and legislation, particularly on environmental issues

Public Interest (prompt: how interest groups influence in elections and policymaking may be affected)

rely on grassroots organizing and public support to push for change; i; interest groups that align with the perceived public interest on issues may have more legitimacy and public support; can mobilize citizens to participate in advocacy efforts

Lobbying (prompt: why and how it would be used to influence policy by interest groups)

engaging in activities/communicating information aimed at influencing public officials, especially legislatures, and the policies the enact → changes in legislation, regulatory decisions, and government actions

Electioneering (prompt: why and how it would be used to influence policy by interest groups)

Providing campaign support or money donations to specific candidates → ensure that like-minded officials are elected to office

Litigation (prompt: why and how it would be used to influence policy by interest groups)

appealing to the courts or suing to get ideas across when legislation fails; includes filing amicus briefs (legal document filed by a person or organization not a party to a lawsuit but has a strong interest in the case's outcome) → Courts can strike down or uphold laws, regulations, or government actions, setting legal precedents that affect policy decisions

Mass mobilization (prompt: why and how it would be used to influence policy by interest groups)

appeal to members/public opinions to help the cause → large-scale protests and public demonstrations can influence public opinion and prompt policymakers to respond

PACs (prompt: how it affects the election process)

PACs are organizations that raise/spend money to support or oppose political candidates, parties, or issues; affiliated with corporations, labor unions, trade associations, or advocacy groups; subject to contribution limits and disclosure requirements – provide a means for organizations and interest groups to pool resources and financially support candidates or causes aligned with their interests.

Super PACs (prompt: how it affects the election process)

independent expenditure-only committees that can raise and spend unlimited amounts of money on political activities, including advocating for or against candidates; cannot contribute directly to candidates or parties but can engage in significant political spending – influence elections by running ads, conducting voter outreach, and engaging in other campaign-related activities without limits as traditional PACs; contribute to the growth of independent expenditure in elections

Soft money (prompt: how it affects the election process)

unregulated/unlimited contributions to political parties; for purposes other than directly supporting a candidate's campaign, such as party-building activities – allowed parties to raise substantial funds for activities like voter registration and issue advocacy; its regulation (Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act (BCRA) of 2002) aimed to reduce the influence of large donors on political parties

Hard money (prompt: how it affects the election process)

regulated/limited contributions made directly to a candidate's campaign or a political party's committee for specific election-related activities, such as advertising; contributions are subject to federal limits – provide candidates with financial support for their campaigns within established limits, promoting transparency and accountability in campaign financing

Issue Ads (prompt: how it affects the election process)

political advertisements that focus on specific policy issues or topics rather than explicitly endorsing or opposing a candidate; They often avoid regulations by avoiding direct language like "vote for" or "vote against" a candidate – influence voters' opinions and perceptions of candidates or issues without directly advocating for a candidate's election or defeat

Incumbency advantage phenomenon (prompt: role in presidential elections)

incumbent president typically has a political advantage over challengers at elections

McGovern-Fraser Commission (prompt: role in presidential elections)

28-member commission that created the process in which we nominate presidential candidates today in 1969; rewrote the Democratic Party’s rules regarding selection of national convention delegates, established open procedures and affirmative action guidelines for selecting delegates

• effects: → more states shifting to primaries instead of Caucasus, Republican Party also transformed

Superdelegates (prompt: role in presidential elections)

(in Democratic Party) an unelected delegate who is free to support any candidate for the presidential nomination at the party National Convention; remnant of “old system”, technically has the power to sway the final vote, but isn’t exercised in modern times

Invisible primary (prompt: role in presidential elections)

“money primary”, period between first well-known presidential candidates with strong supports showing interest in running, and the demonstration of public support for them in primaries/caucuses

• during this period: primary candidates raise funds and attempt to gain support and party establishment; in order to see if they have a large enough platform to run

• Effect: period can make or break candidates, those who don’t get enough support often end up bowing out of race before the primary season

Caucus (prompt: role in presidential elections)

participants engage in a discussion and break into groups according to their preferred candidate; the one with most support moves on to county convention; goal is to gain delegates for the national convention

Primary (prompt: role in presidential elections)

secret ballots for the candidate of their choice -- a poll; goal is to gain delegates for the national convention; more common in states than caucuses b/c takes less time and promotes more voter participation BUT voters tend to be less informed

Open primaries (prompt: role in presidential elections)

voters of any affiliation can vote in the primary of any part,

ex. can lead to attempts to sabotage by other party by electing a weaker candidate, but can also be beneficial by allowing a Republican to vote for a more Conservative democrat, etc

Closed primaries (prompt: role in presidential elections)

voters must be part of that party to vote for them; may increase polarization of primary stage by catering to only the party’s interests

Frontloading (prompt: role in presidential elections)

moving up (in dates) of caucuses and primaries by state → increasing their influence in the selection of the party’s candidate → presidential nominees being determined early in the election year
- Iowa and New Hampshire caucuses typically go first, but criticized for being unrepresentative of the country (mostly white) and exerted too much influence in the nomination process

Delegates (prompt: role in presidential elections)

a person chosen to represent a group of people in a political assembly, decided upon by primaries and caucuses

• The more delegates at national convention → bigger support you have to win

Party National Convention (prompt: role in presidential elections)

meeting of delegates of a political party, go to vote to confirm their choice of candidates and select the presidential nominee

Nomination

selecting someone for a position

3 tasks completed at National convention:

1. State delegates from primaries and caucuses selected to represent the people now “endorse” their candidates

2. Final presidential nominee will be officially announced at the end

3. Presidential candidate chooses a running mate (vice president)

General campaign (prompt: role in presidential elections)

campaign in which candidates are running to be elected to offices - NOT like primaries which are used to narrow down the candidates for the general election; finalization of campaign between Republican vs. Democratic candidate

Televised debates (prompt: role in presidential elections)

debates - presidential or in primaries, in which relevant issues are discussed and asked to candidates about opinions, chance for nation to watch and see more about candidate’s views, etc

General Election/Popular Vote (prompt: role in presidential elections)

final presidential vote between main Republican and Democratic candidate, winners are determined by the electoral college; also includes third parties

Electoral college

consists of 538 electors, represent casting the votes allocated by the winning of each state to contribute to each candidate

• Calculated by adding # of senators + # of house members (DC also represented with 3)

Battleground state

swing state, can sway between Democratic and Republican and not consistently one or the other; typically fought over and is the determining factor in most elections

Winner-take-all allocation of votes

electoral system in which only a single political party or group can win within a given district or jurisdiction.

Allocation of most states’ electoral votes (prompt: Winner-take-all allocation of votes in electoral college system)

based on the census, 2 senators + House representatives

Impact system has on campaigns (prompt: Winner-take-all allocation of votes in electoral college system)

candidates tend to focus campaigning on swing states and may tailor their ideals to appeal to voters in those states

Impact on voter turn-out (prompt: Winner-take-all allocation of votes in electoral college system)

those who are the minority party in consistently red/blue states don’t bother voting because it never changes

Impact on third party success (prompt: Winner-take-all allocation of votes in electoral college system)

third party will have zero-to no chance to gain votes as only majority will gain possible influence; will never have more turnout than the other two parties

Two states that do NOT have winner-take-all allocation (prompt: Winner-take-all allocation of votes in electoral college system)

Maine and Nebraska are congressional district method; allocate two electoral votes to the state popular vote winner, and one electoral vote to the popular vote winner in each congressional district (2 in Maine, 3 in Nebraska)

How a candidate can win popular vote but lose electoral college

Small margins in swing states, small states have a larger proportion of electoral votes:population

Where is the electoral college in the Constitution

Article II, Section 1, Clause 3

Mandate theory of elections

(p. 298) the winning candidate has a mandate from the people to carry out his or her platforms and politics. Politicians like the theory better than political scientists do.

Length of primary season (prompt: criticisms of election process)

criticized for being much longer than any other countries, and require lots of money to run; length is 596 days before actual general election

• Possible improvements: limits on campaign spending/on days you can spend campaigning

Voter turnout of primaries and caucasus (prompt: criticisms of election process)

criticized for not promoting enough participation, especially if in a state that consistently red/blue so people say . ah it's ok i don't need to vote it's gonna be the same either way

Order of state primaries/frontloading (prompt: criticisms of election process)

not representative of the rest of the country, as Iowa and New Hampshire (the first caucuses) are primarily white, and are more influential for the rest of the caucuses and primaries; makes it difficult for lesser-known candidates to gain traction in early primaries/caucuses

Cost of campaigns (prompt: criticisms of election process)

candidates who don’t have a large prior platform and not a load of money are less likely to succeed, as they’re unable to promote themselves as much

Influences of Special Interest Groups/Super-PACs (prompt: criticisms of election process)

increases the influence of wealthy Americans and businesses have on American politics; silence voters voices when superPACs make deals to influence elected officials

Incumbency advantage phenomenon (prompt: Role in congressional elections)

ditto to definition in terms of presidential elections (if you already held the seat, you have an advantage, likely to get reelected)

Primary campaign (prompt: Role in congressional elections)

elections occurring at local or state level to gain delegates to support a candidate in order to get elected

General Election (Presidential) (prompt: Role in congressional elections)

Congressional elections are affected by typically swaying along with the presidential vote, and candidates experience the process of “coattails”

Coattails (prompt: Role in congressional elections)

weaker or lesser-known candidates from the president’s party profit from the president’s winning votes

General Election (Mid-term) (prompt: Role in congressional elections)

takes place in the middle of a presidential term; tend to have much lower turnout than presidential elections and often result in the loss of congressional seats for the president’s party

State government (prompt: powers in governing of elections)

• Creates rules and procedures for voter registration

• Set times, locations, and most dates of elections

• Certifies elections results days/weeks after Election Day

• Draws congressional district lines

• Chooses format of ballots & how to file for candidacy

Federal government (prompt: powers in governing of elections)

Has judicial jurisdiction on election policy, Administers and enforces campaign finance rules, Sets date for federal, general elections, Enforces relevant civil rights legislation, Addresses suffrage in constitutional amendments

Professional consultants (prompt: modern campaign characteristics)

advise how best to present their ideas to the public; help develop media strategy, fundraising, research and conduct polling

Intensive fundraising (prompt: modern campaign characteristics)

raise money from individuals, PACs, SuperPACs; need to also pay for advertising, staff salaries, direct mailers, officers, travel

Length of election cycles (prompt: modern campaign characteristics)

invisible primary: speeches, fundraising, etc; primary season, National Convention, General Election, length requires candidates to have an extensive amount of money to advertise and campaign themselves, lots drop out before primaries

Social media (prompt: modern campaign characteristics)

help improve advertising and reach voters, and allow candidates to communicate more directly with voters rather than through just broadcast/print; allows to target certain audiences with individual messages to persuade behavior

Federal Election Campaign Act (prompt: Campaign Financing’s Acts of Congress and Supreme Court Decisions)

• established disclosure requirements for federal candidates, political parties, and PACS

• created Federal Election Commission (FEC)

Federal Election Commission (FEC)

agency responsible for enforcing campaign finance laws in federal elections; ensures compliance with leg. related to campaign donations, spending, and disclosure

Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act (McCain-Feingold) (prompt: Campaign Financing’s Acts of Congress and Supreme Court Decisions)

2002 campaign finance reform law

• banned funding of electioneering with soft money: unlimited funds that are contributed to political parties or other political organizations for party-building (aka not in support of specific candidates)

• created rules for running advertisements: identify organization running ad, add disclaimer that it wasn’t endorsed by a candidate

• 527 Groups

• independent expenditures

527 Groups

focused on issue advocacy and can raise unlimited funds to influence elections indirectly through issue ads or other political activities

• not regulated by the FEC

• established by Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act (McCain-Feingold_