Explanations for Forgetting: Retrieval Failure

What is the retrieval failure theory?

A theory suggesting that forgetting in the LTM occurs because we don’t have the right cue to retrieve a memory. If the cue isn’t available at the time of recall, it may appear as though we forgot the information, when really we just can’t access it.

• When we store a new memory, we also store info that occurred around it, e.g. feelings, place, weather etc.

What is a cue?

A hint or trigger that can help retrieve a memory.

What is Tulving’s encoding specificity principle (ESP)?

States that memory is best when the cues present at retrieval (when we are recalling it) match the cues that were present at the time of encoding (when the memory was formed). Many cues have a meaningful link to the information forming the memory.

• You remember something better when you are in the same environment, same mood, or with the same cues you had when you learned it

• If the cues are different or missing, retrieval becomes harder → retrieval failure happens

What does it mean if cues have a meaningful link?

It means the cue is directly related to the memory itself (e.g. categories, mnemonics). The cue has actual meaning connected to the information, which makes recall stronger.

• Example: The category “animals” helps you remember “lion”

What are the two types of retrieval cues involved in retrieval failure?

• Context-dependent forgetting

• State-dependent forgetting

What is context-dependent forgetting?

Occurs when recall depends on an external cue, e.g. the environment, surroundings, weather, place.

• E.g. Revising in your bedroom → recalling better in your bedroom

What is state-dependent forgetting?

Occurs when recall depends on an internal cue, e.g. the feelings/emotions involved (feeling happy, sad, angry, distressed, etc.), the physiological state of the person (feeling drunk, drugged, tired, etc.),

• E.g. Learning something while sober → recalling it better when sober

What was the aim of Godden & Baddeley’s (1975) experiment in terms of supporting context-dependent forgetting?

To investigate whether memory was better for words learned and recalled in the same environment or in different environments (the contexts being land or water).

What was the procedure of Godden & Baddeley’s (1975) experiment in terms of supporting context-dependent forgetting?

The sample comprised of 18 deep-sea divers from a university diving club who were asked to learn a set of words either on land or underwater and were then asked to recall these words either on land or underwater.

• There were four conditions of the independent variable:

  • 1) learning words on land + recalling on land

  • 2) learning words on land + recalling underwater

  • 3) learning underwater + recalling underwater

  • 4) learning underwater + recalling on land

What was the results of Godden & Baddeley’s (1975) experiment in terms of supporting context-dependent forgetting?

Accurate recall was 40% lower in the non-matching conditions than matching conditions.

What did Godden & Baddeley (1975) conclude from their experiment in terms of supporting context-dependent forgetting?

Since the external cues available at learning/coding were different from the ones available at recall, this led to retrieval failure. Supports ESP by Tulving.

What was the procedure of Carter & Cassaday’s (1998) experiment in terms of supporting state-dependent forgetting?

Gave some participants sedatives (antihistamines) making them slightly drowsy (creates a psychological state different from the ‘normal’ state of being alert/awake). The participants had to learn a list of words & prose passages and then recall them.

• There were four conditions of the independent variable:

  • 1) learn on drug + recall on drug

  • 2) learn on drug + recall when not on drug

  • 3) learn not on drug + recall not on drug

  • 4) learn not on drug + recall on drug

What were the results of Carter & Cassaday’s (1998) experiment in terms of supporting state-dependent forgetting?

In the conditions where the internal state was mismatched, performance on memory test was significantly worse.

What did Carter & Cassaday (1998) conclude from their experiment in terms of supporting state-dependent forgetting?

When internal cues are absent, there’s more forgetting.

What are the strengths of retrieval failure?

There is good real-world application to the theory

• Studying for exams should be conducted in the same room in which the exam is to take place to aid recall

• This means that the theory has good external validity

Supporting empirical/factual evidence

• Godden & Baddeley, Carter & Cassaday

Can help to overcome some forgetting everyday situations

• When you’re in a room and need to get something from another room, once you go the other room you forget what you wanted to get, but the moment you go back into the first room you remember again. When we have trouble remembering something, it’s probably worth making the effort to recall the environment in which you learned it first. Shows how research can remind us of strategies we can use in the real world to recall

What is a counterpoint to there being empirical/factual evidence to support retrieval failure?

Baddeley (1997) argues that context effects are actually not very strong, especially in everyday life. Different contexts have to be very different before an effect is seen. For example, it would be hard to find an environment as different from land as underwater (Godden and Baddeley’s experiment). In contrast, learning something in one room and recalling it in another is unlikely to result in much forgetting because these environments are generally not different enough. This means that retrieval failure due to lack of contextual cues may not be a good model to explain forgetting.

What are the weaknesses of retrieval failure?

Baddeley (1977) argued that the effect of context is not very strong in real-world situations

• It would be difficult to find such extremely contrasting contexts as land and water (Godden and Baddeley) in real life

• This means that retrieval failure due to a lack of contextual cues may not be a good model to explain forgetting

• Many of the studies involve learning lists of words, which is an artificial task, meaning that the studies lack ecological validity and real-world application