RESEARCH METHODS (copy)

aim

general statement of what the researcher intends to investigate.

hypothesis

a clear, testable statement that states the relationship between the variables.
can be directional or non-directional.

directional hypothesis

states the direction of the difference or relationship.

non-directional hypothesis

does not state the direction of the difference or the relationship.

dependent variable

variable that is measured.

independent variable

variable that changes, allowing the effect on the DV to be measured.

operationalisation

clearly defining variables in terms of how they can be measured.

types of research issues

extraneous variables.
confounding variables.
demand characteristics.
randomisation.
investigator effects.

extraneous variables

any variable other than the IV that may affect the DV if not controlled.

confounding variables

a type of EV that varies systematically with the IV, making it difficult to determine which factor is affecting the DV

demand characteristics

cues in an experiment that tell the participant what behavior is expected.

randomisation

the use of chance in order to control for the effects of bias when designing materials and deciding the order of conditions.

experimental method

manipulation of variables to establish cause and effect relationships.

investigator effects

any effect of the investigators behaviour on the research outcome.

standardisation

using exactly the same formalised procedures and instructions for all participants in a research study.

experimental designs

the different ways in which participants can be organised in relation to the experimental conditions.

types of experimental designs

independent groups.
repeated measures.
matched pairs.
random allocation.

independent group design

participants are allocated to different groups where each group represents one experimental condition.

repeated measures

all participants take part in all conditions of the experiment.

matched pairs design

participants are paired up based on variables that may affect the DV.
one partner assigned condition A and the other condition B.

random allocation

allocating participants to experimental groups using random techniques to ensure each participant has an equal chance of being selected.

counterbalancing

a method of controlling for order effects in repeated measures designs by having half the participants experience the conditions in one order, and the other half in the opposite order.

types of experiments

laboratory experiments.
field experiments.
natural experiments.
quasi-experiments.

laboratory experiment

an experiment that takes place in a highly controlled environment where the researcher manipulates the IV and records the effect on the DV.

field experiment

an experiment that takes place in a natural setting where the researcher manipulates the IV and records the effect on the DV.

natural experiment

an experiment where the change in the IV is not brought about by the researcher but would have happened even if the researcher had not been there.

quasi-experiment

an experiment where the IV is based on an existing difference between people, therefore the IV can't be changed.

population

a group of people who are the focus of the researcher's interest, from which a smaller sample is drawn from.

sample

a group of people who take part in a research investigation.
it is drawn from a target population and is presumed to be representative of that poplulation.

sampling techniques

the method used to select people from the population

types of sampling techniques

random sampling.
systematic sampling.
stratified sampling.
opportunity sampling.
volunteer sampling.

random sampling.

every member of the target population has an equal chance of being selected.

systematic sampling

every nth person in chosen from a list.

stratified sample

the proportions of people in population subgroups are reflected in the sample.

opportunity sampling

whoever is willing and available at the time of sampling will be included.

volunteer sampling

participants self-select.

bias

when certain groups are over or under represented within the sample selected, limiting the extent to which generalisations can be made to the target population.

generalisation

the extent to which findings can be broadly applied to the population.

ethical issues

these arise when a conflict exists between the rights of participants in research studies and the goals of research to produce authentic and valid data.

types of ethical issues

informed consent.
deception.
protection from harm.
confidentiality.

informed consent

participants should be made aware of the aims, procedure and their right to withdraw before they agree to take part.

deception

participants should not be deliberately misled.

protection from harm

participants should not be exposed to any more risk than they would in everyday life.

confidentiality

participants anonymity and privacy must be respected and names should not be recorded.

pilot study

small scale version of the experiment and will usually involve a small number of participants.

aim of a pilot study

to ‘road-test’ the procedure to make sure everything runs smoothly and if not, make adjustments.

single-blind procedure

participants are not made aware of some details of the investigation (eg, full aim or what condition they are in) in order to reduce demand characteristics.

strength of single-blind procedure

reduce demand characteristics

weakness of single-blind procedure

chance of investigator effects or bias

double-blind procedure

neither the participant nor the person conducting the research know the aim of the research, in order to reduce demand characteristics and investigator effects.

strength of double-blind procedure

reduce demand characteristics and investigator effects

weakness of double-blind procedure

expensive to conduct and may take several months or years to conduct

control groups

used for the purpose of comparison with the experimental group so the researcher can be more certain of the effects of the IV on the DV

observation

way of seeing what people do

types of observations

naturalistic observation

controlled observation

covert observation

overt observation

participant observation

non-participant observation

naturalistic observation

watching and recording behaviour in the setting within which it would naturally occur

controlled observation

watching and controlling behaviour within a structured environment

covert observation

participants behaviour is watched and recorded without their knowledge or consent

overt observation

participants behaviour is watched and recorded with their knowledge and consent

participant observation

the researcher becomes a member of the group whose behaviour is being watched and recorded

non-participant observation

the researcher remains outside of the group whose behaviour is being watched and recorded

behavioural categories

when a target behaviour is broken up into categories that are observable and measurable

event sampling

a target behaviour or event is first established then the researcher records this event every time it occurs

time sampling

a target individual or group is first established then the researcher records all the behaviour that occurs in the set time frame

self-report techniques

any method in which a person is asked to state or explain their own feelings, opinions, behaviours or experiences related to a given topic

examples of self-report techniques

questionnaires

interviews

questionnaire

a set of written questions used to assess a person’s thoughts or experiences, can be opened or closed.

open questions

do not include a fixed range of answers, so participant can respond however they want.

closed questions

directs responders to a fixed set of responses. techniques for closed questions include likert scales, rating scales and fixed choice options

interview

a live encounter where one person asks a set of questions to assess the participants thoughts and experiences, can be structured, semi, or unstructured

structured interview

involves pre-set questions asked in a fixed order

semi-structured interview

some pre-set questions but follow up questions are asked as the interview develops

unstructured interview

have few or no pre-arranged questions, so allow the interviewee to develop more on their experiences