PHIL 103 Midterm 1

Logic

The formal systematic study of the principles of valid inference and correct reasoning, and the application of those principles to the analysis and appraisal of arguments

Argument

A set of sentences related in such a way that some of the sentences are presented as evidence for another sentence in the set

Premise

A sentence that is offered as evidence in an argument

Conclusion

The sentence in an argument that is supposedly supported by the evidence

Inductive Argument

Not intended to guarantee their conclusions; instead, they are intended to give good reason to believe the conclusion. However, one can believe the premises but not the conclusion. 

Deductive Argument

Intended to guarantee their conclusion. That is, if one believes the premises one ought to believe the conclusion

Validity

An argument is valid if, and only if, it is not possible both that (1) all the premises are true, and (2) the conclusion is false

Soundness

An argument is sound if, and only if, the argument is both (1) valid and (2) all the premises are true

Indicator Words

Words commonly used to signal premises/conclusions of arguments

Premise Indicators

For, since, because, and for the reason that

Conclusion Indicators

It can be, hence, thus, therefore, and so, it follows that, and for that reason

Assuring

Occurs when a speaker indicates that he or she has reasons for the premises of an argument

Guarding

Occurs when a speaker weakens his or her claims

Discounting

Occurs when a speaker anticipates possible objections in order to dismiss them

Statistical Generalization

A sentence that states that some proportion of members of one class are members of another class. Most. 

Universal Generalization

A sentence that all or none of the members of one class are members of another. All.

Ambiguity

When a word or expression has several distinct, non overlapping, meanings

Vagueness

When a term has borderline areas in which it is unclear whether or not the term applies, or if it has several overlapping meanings. Also refers to language that is general rather than specific

Use

Refer to something

Mention

Talk about the word

Denotative Definition

List of some of set of things that word applies to 

Ostensive Definition

A nonverbal form in which pointing or some other way of indicating the extension of a term is used to give the meaning of the term

Extensional Definition

Entire list of things in which definition applies to

Intensional Definition

Properties that a thing may have

Explicit Intensional Definition

Everything in which that only applies to the definition

Lexical Definition

To present the accepted standard use of a term

Stipulative Definition

To introduce a new term into the language

Precising Definition

Reducing the vagueness of a term

Theoretical Definition

To construct a theory, these definitions may be explicit or implicit

Persuasive Definition

To express or evoke an attitude, such as approval or disapproval toward things referred to by the term

Operational Definition

Specifies a publicly observable/repeatable operation with a specified outcome that determines whether a sentence containing the expression is correctly applicable to a given situation

Syntactic Definition

Terms without an intension/extension are sometimes defined by indicating their syntactic/grammatical role in a language. Supplemented by presenting a context in which the term occurs.

Implicit Definition

Terms are defined by showing how they are used in a given situation(s)

Amphiboly

An ambiguity that results from grammatical structure

Equivocation

The use of an ambiguous expression in more than one of its senses in a single context

Declarative Sentence

As opposed to questions, commands, requests, and exclamations, this is used to assert something that is the case

Evidence

Is information that is offered in support of some assertion. It may be physical or verbal

Fallacy

A mistake in reasoning, in particular, of supporting (pretending) evidence has been presented in support of an assertion, when some form of non evidential persuasion is used instead.

Infer

To conclude from something known or assumed. This is a mental activity that may be - but need not be - expressed in language

Imply

To provide a basis from which an inference may be drawn