APEURO Unit 2: Protestant Reformation & the Wars of Religion

Martin Luther

Martin Luther

German theologian and reformer (1483-1546)

• influenced by Erasmus

• seminal figure of Protestant reformation: lutherism

• takes issue w/ Indulgences: 95 Theses

• believed faith alone got you into heaven, and not good works: “Sola Fide”

• cath.: didn’t want to break w/ church, only wanted reform: 1521 - excommunicated by Leo X

• Edict of Worms: Luther = heretic, banned HRE citizens from propagating his ideas

• argued ppl. only needed bible, not cath. figures or practices: “Sola Scriptura”

• translated bible into german from latin

• antisemitic

Indulgences

• sold by the RC to finance church projects (EX: St. Peter’s Basilica)

• certificated that granted full or partial remission of punishment for sins w/out confession

• CONTROVERSIAL: one of the reasons for prot. reformation

95 Theses

Luther, 1517

• official start of Reformation

• detailed list of Luther’s complaints against the RC

• disseminated around Germany quickly due to printing press, gained much support

Diet of Worms

• assembly directed by HRE, called by Charles V in 1521

• Luther summoned there by Pope Leo X to renounce or reaffirm his views, he reaffirmed

• Edict of Worms: emperor issued, condemned luther as heretic and banned HRE citizens from propagating his ideas

• edict symbolizes 1st overt schism of reformation

“Sola Fide”

Lutheran doctrine: “faith alone”

faith in Jesus/God is only way to achieve salvation, not through good works or sacraments

Sacraments

religious ceremonies considered sacred by the RC:

1. baptism

2. confirmation

3. eucharist/communion

4. marriage

5. reconciliation/confession/penance

6. anointing of the sick

7. holy orders

Peasant revolts

Peace of Augsburg

1555: made Prot.-Cath. division permanent

• recognized in law that the ruler of a land decided its religion

• Lutherans were permitted to retain all lands forcibly seized pre-1552

• reservation added to prevent high RC prelates from taking privileges/land/titles w/ them if they converted

• ppl permitted to migrate if unhappy w/ region’s religion

• didn’t extend recognition to calvinists or anabaptists:

  • calvinists: lead rev. thru n. europe in quest of recognition

  • anabaptists: separatists, used to it and didn’t seek recognition

Swiss Reformation

Background:

1. growth of nat. sentiment, especially against foreign mercenary service (big part of swiss economy)

2. desire for church reform

3. switzerland made of 13 cantons (states) in loose confederacy

Leader: Ulrich Zwingli

Swiss Civil Wars

• prot. v. cath. cantons

• 2 major battles @ Kappel:

  • 1529: prot. victory

    • cath. cantons break foreign alliances + recognize rights of swiss prot.

  • 1531: cath. victory

    • zwingli executed

• subsequent treaty confirmed right of each canton to choose its religion

• Henrich Bullinger becomes new head of SR: guided development into est. religion (swiss brethren) + eventual merge w/ Calvinism

John Calvin

(1509-1564) leader of Calvinism

Calvinists: predestination & elects, focus on transforming society - faith is active

• calvinism inspired/accompanied massive political resistance in France, Scotland, and Netherlands

1536: publishes Institutes of Christian Religion (systematized prot. doctrine), becomes minister in Geneva (many prot. fled there)

1537: Calvin’s reforms presented to city council

• strong measures of moral life - “new papacy”

• Genevan church org. intro 4 offices: pastors, teachers, elders, deacons

• Calvin’s Geneva = theocracy

• Calvin’s Geneva = women’s paradise: law severely punished men who beat their wives

Predestination

calvinist doctrine: from the beginning of the world, God had already decided who would go to heaven, and who would go to hell

elect: those who God had chosen to save

• true elects had no choice in the matter and could never lose their salvation

Cardinal Wolsey

Thomas Wolsey (1473-1530)

• Lord Chancellor (King’s chief advisor) of Henry 8th (1515–1529)

• failed to negotiate annulment of Henry-Catherine of Aragaon marriage, Henry angry and stripped Wolsey of role as chancellor and other government titles

Leo X

Pope (1513-1521)

• a Medici!

• often associated w/ opulence/excesses of ren. popes

• authorized indulgences for $ for St. Peter’s Basilica (angered many, including Luther)

• papal bull Exsurge Domine in response to popularity of Luther’s 95 Theses

• failed to address calls for RC reform weakened papal authority and contributed to rise of prot.

Henry VIII

(1491-1547, King of England from 1509)

• Tudor

• wanted male heir, wanted divorce from Catherine of Aragon (mother of Mary I/Bloody Mary)

• Pope wouldn’t grant annulment (imprisoned by Charles V, Catherine’s nephew) - separated England from RC and established C of E/Anglicanism

• monarch = head of church

• spearheaded English reformation, but Henry 8th very Cath., Anglicanism very similar to Cath.

Anne Boleyn

• 2nd wife of Henry 8th (1533-1536)

• introduced Henry to prot. readings and influenced him to accept some prot. ideas

• beheaded by Henry in 1536 because still no male heir

  • Cromwell creates propaganda against her to justify: adultery = no, conspiracy against king = yes? talked about king’s death which was treason

• mother of Elizabeth I

Anglicanism

aka Church of England

• est. by Henry 8th because he wanted divorce, king = head of church

• not that different from Catholicism, no papal authority but:

  • valued scripture and sacraments

  • upheld trad worship and structure

• England isolated from RC and Prot.

• defining documents: 39 articles, Book of Common Prayer

Hapsburg

Charles V abdicates + retires (1556)

• Ferdinand I elected HRE (Austria, Bohemia, Hungary)

• Philip II King of Spain, 1580: Portugal, Netherlands (HRE)

  • Naval power in W. Medit

  • believed advance of Spanish power served cause of universal RC church (as well as own interests)

• separation into Spanish (Philip II) and Austrian branches (Ferdinand I)

Bourbon

One of the 3 noble families vying for French throne (Bourbon v Guise v Valois (on throne, trying to keep it))

Bourbon = Calvinist

Henry of Navarre is a Bourbon, leader of the Huguenots, eventually becomes King Henry IV of France

St. Bartholomew’s Day massacre

Aug. 24, 1572

• Massacre of thousands of Huguenots, most who had come to Paris for Henry-Margaret marriage (many rich + powerful Huguenots killed)

• believed to have been orchestrated by Catherine de’Medici (Catholic, Queen of France) and assisted by the Guise family (uber Catholic, Bourbon’s rivals)

• turning point in French Wars of Religion, Huguenots political movement crippled many Huguenots converted to Cath. or became extremely radicalised

Huguenot

French Calvinists:

• always a minority, but not a small or quiet one

• >1/3 of French nobility was prot. by 1570s

• lords often believed they should have right to regulate religion on his own estates

• many peasants became Huguenots because lords would betray local bishops and instate Calvinist priest

• prominent figures: Bourbons, esp. Henry of Navarre, Admiral Gaspard de Coligny

Politique

• perfunctory caths. + mod. prots.

beliefs:

• no religious doctrine was important enough for everlasting war

• just have 2 churches, what France needed most was civil order (secular!)

henry of navarre was a politique at heart

Philip II

(1527-1598)

• King of Spain, Spanish Hapsburg’s

• fervent Cath.

• married to Mary I, King of England by marriage

• Sent Spanish Armada to invade England

• Sent Duke of Alba w/ Council of Troubles (Blood)

Elizabeth I

(1533-1603, queen from 1558)

• Virgin queen of England

• made England Prot.

• encouraged exploration and trade (Sir Francis Drake), laid ground 4 brit. colonization

  • did this to get $ because parliament refused to approve her budget unless she got married

• renaissance woman if you will: polyglot, translated for fun, danced, rode, etc.

• always appeared younger in portraits, extravagant clothes + jewels

Revolt of the Netherlands

aka 80 years war (1566-1648)

• Netherlands rebels against Spanish rule: defaces cath. churches + images (iconoclasm)

• philip ii unleashes targeted attacks because of this

• leader: William of Orange

• cath. v prot. along w/ other issues like taxation

• 1581: dutch calvinists declare themselves independent from spain (act of abjuration)

• 1648: 12 years truce (1609-1621)

  • other nations started treating Dutch as independent

  • spain saw it only as a temporary measure

• fighting resumes as part of 30 years war

  • spain doesn’t recognize dutch independence until treaty of westphalia, the end of 30 yrs war (1648)

Union of Utrech

1579

treaty that united several N. Dutch provinces against Spanish Hapsburg rule (Philip 2nd)

Duke of Alba

• governor of Netherlands under Philip ii

• led military inqusition Council of Troubles/Blood into Netherlands to supress calvinist revolt

Mary Tudor

• “Bloody” Mary, Queen Mary I of England & Ireland

• (1516-1558, queen from 1553)

• married Philip II (1554), Queen of Spain + Hapsburg dominions thru marriage

• daughter of Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon

• VERY Cath.

• 1st female english monarch

• attempted to Restore RC to England and stop prot. reformation

• burned many prot. “heretics” at the stake (~280)

• reign marred w/ political instability and rebellion (can women be good rulers?)

• succeeded by Elizabeth i

Adolphus

Gustavus Adolphus, King of Sweden (1594-1632, king from 1611)

• created most modern army of the time for 30 yrs war: religious, marched singing Lutheran hymns

• won battles against HRE emperor at Breitenfeld (1631) + Lützen (1632) but Adolphus was killed

• victories came to little, weakened by disagreement

Catholic League

• formed by Duke Henry of Guise, coalition of french cath. states and nobles

• ultra-catholic

• goals:

  • exterminating prot. from france

  • put Guise on French throne

• pope, philip ii, jesuits all supporters

Peace of Westphalia

(1648), ended 30 yrs war

• talks began 1644

political provisions:

• recognized soverignty of German princes, greatly weakened HRE as effective political entity

• united provinces (Dutch Republic) become officially independent from Spain

• France + Sweden recieve German lands

• Switzerland becomes totally independent of HRE (Swiss confederation)

Religious provisions:

• calvinists receive same privileges Lutherans got under Peace of Augsburg

• Ruler of each state can determine its official religion (except hereditary lands of hapsburgs) BUT he most permit freedom of private worship (christian only)

• diminished power of pope in german lands

Lutheranism

• founder: Martin Luther

• major prot. branch

• “sola fide” and “sola scriptura” as beliefs

• political power: don’t answer to a pope/centralized religion, more power for monarchs + secular leaders

• church + bible in vernacular

• started reformation and caused religious conflict

Friar Tetzel

Johann Tetzel (1465–1519):

• German dominican friar

• Grand Commissioner for indulgences in Germany

  • traveling salesman of indulgences

    • showman, advertiser, propaganda

  • indulgence $ needed by Leo X to build St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome

Archbishop of Mainz

• 1/7 elector of HRE emperor

• albert of brandenburg during prot. reformation

• cardinal: 1518

• sent 95 theses to Rome/Pope Leo X

Charles V

• Hapsburg

• HRE Emperor: 1519-1556

• extensive empire: Spain, Netherlands, Austria, etc.

  • one of most powerful rulers of time

• conflicts w/ France and Ottoman Empire as he tried to maintain Hapsburg supremacy in Europe

• faced opposition from Luther and prot. reformers

• 1556: abdicated and retired, split Hapsburg into two branches

  • philip ii - spanish

  • ferdinand i - austrian

Transubstantiation

cath. belief: bread and wine of the eucharist is ACTUALLY body + blood of Christ

challenged by prot. belief: consubstantiation

• bread and wine are spiritually the flesh and blood of Christ, but remain bread and wine in substance

laity

religious org. members who aren’t ordained/not part of clergy

ex: nuns, lay-brothers

antisemitism

hostility and prejudice against Jewish people

prevalent in reformation: Luther was very antisemitic

only christian religions accepted in religious toleration, not jewish

Ulrich Zwingli

(1484-1531)

• early leader of Swiss reformation

• main idea: whatever lacked literal support in scripture was neither to be believed or practiced (indulgences, supersition, clerical cellibacy, fasting, st. worship, pilgrimages, purgatory, etc.)

• humanist, critic of mercenary service

• imposed harsh discipline in Zurich where he was priest + where city gov. approves Zwingli’s scripture (1593) - 1st ex of puritanical prot.

• killed at 1531 battle of Kappel

Anabaptists

• anscestors of amish + mennonites!

• rejected infant baptism: decide to get baptized as adult after education on religion

• founded by Conrad Grebel (Swiss theologian)

• choice + coercion: physically separated from est. society

• persecuted:

  • 1529: rebaptism is crime in HRE

  • 1k-5k executed (1525-1618)

• relatively pacifist

Calvinism

• founder: John Calvin

• 2nd big prot. religion

• beliefs: predestination, law = bible (theocracy)

• share primacy of scripture and justification by faith w/ Lutheranism

• focus on transforming society: faith is active

English Reformation

• proto-prot.: lollardy

• England leaves RC, Henry VIII head of C of E/Anglican church

  • 1534: Act of Supremacy makes this official

• 1536-1540: dissolution of monasteries

• Edward VI approves gov. sanctioned iconoclasm

• 1549: Edward VI replaces trad. Latin bible w/ Thomas Cranmer’s Book of Common Prayer (greatly revised to be more prot. in 1552, Ex: consubutation)

  • in vernacular

  • taught sola fide

• most major reforms happen w/ Elizabeth I, stabilizes England as prot.

  • puritans

  • new act of supremacy, act of uniformity, and elizabethan religious settlement returned church to pre-mary I conditions

  • 39 articles, doctrinal statement for church

William Tinsdale

• translated bible into English

• heavily influenced by Luther

• humanist

• 1536: executed after being charged w/ heresy by henry viii

Thomas More

(1478-1535)

• wrote Utopia (1516): describes political system of an imaginary island state

• ren. humanist

• opposed prot. reformation

• (1529-1532): Lord Chancellor for Henry VIII

  • refused to take Oath of Supremacy and recognize Henry as leader of church

  • opposed to annulment of marriage w/ catherine A.

• convicted of treason and executed (1535)

Catherine of Aragon

• 1st wife of henry 8th

• mother of mary I

• aunt of charles v - annulment issues

• cath.

Act of Supremacy

1534: declared Henry VIII and successors as head of c of e

repealed by Mary I

1558: declared Elizabeth I and her successors as Supreme Governor of the Church

Edward VI

(1537-1553)

• King of England & Ireland (1547)

• 1st English monarch to be raised prot.

• transformation of c of e into actual prot. body

  • abolition of clerical cellibacy

  • abolition of the Mass

• reign marked by economic problems and social unrest (1549: rebellion)

  • expensive and unpop war w/ scotland

Valois

royal dynasty of france (1328 to 1589)

• Henry III + Catherine De Medici

• Charles V (hapsburg and valois)

• Hapsburg-Valois Wars: fought over control of italian territory

Catherine de Medici

Henry of Navarre (Henry IV)

Edict of Nantes

1598, Henry IV of France

• granted every seigneur right to hold prot. services on his estate

• allowed prot. in towns where it was already majority + in 1 town in each bailliage

• barred prot. churches from cath. towns + zone surrounding paris

• prot. = cath. in civil rights: same chance for public office, access to cath. universities

Escorial

palace + monastery built by Philip II

Spanish Armada

Dutch Republic

Council of Blood

William of Orange the Silent

30 Years War

Defenestration of Prague