history & approaches

empiricism

knowledge comes from pexperience, obeservation and experimentation enable scientific knowledge

introspection

process of looking inward to directly observe one’s own psychological process

wundt

structuralism

structuralism

idea that the mind operates by subjective emotions + objective sensations

wiliam james

published 1st book of psychology; made functionalism by examining wundt’s structures in our lives

functionalism

explored how mental and behavioral processes function

mary whilton calkins

first woman president of APA. pioneer memory researcher

marageret floy washburn

1st woman in a pHD in psych. animal behavior research in *The Animal Mind*

g. stanely hall

pioneer of childhood dev. & 1st prez of APA & first formal psychological labratory

max wethiemer

contributor to gestalt psychology

gestalt

observed person’s total experience. see patient's difficulty and context of problem

freud

made psychoanalytic theory

psychoanalysis

emphasized unconscious mind and repression affect our behavior

pavlov

operant conditioning

watson

studied pavlov’s experiements

b.f. skinner

reinforcement. rejected introspection and studied how consequences shape behavior.

behaviorism

wanted to make psychology limited to observable phenomena, behavior. dominant school of thought in 1920s

humanistic

individual choice and free will. // ex. an introverted person is introverted because they find social needs are satisfied by just close friends instead of a large group

maslow

made hierarchy of needs to obtain self-actualization

carl rogers

founder of humanistic theory. made client-centered behavior

deterministic behaviorists

“behaviors are caused by conditioning only”

neuroscience biological processes

genes, hormones, neurotransmitters // ex. an extraverted person is extraverted because tey inherited it from their parents

behavior genetics

study of relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influence on behavior

jean piaget

made cognitive devleopment theory.

cognitive neuroscience

interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linkd with cognition. perception, thinking, memory, language // ex. an extraverted person is extraverted because they interpret being outgoing makes sense to them

sociocultural perspective

thoughts and behaviors vary through cultures // ex. a person is extraverted because in their culture they act outgoing and louder than in another culture

biopychsocial

genetics, conditioning, social influence. modern // ex. there’s a genetic tendency for extroversion, this person is conditioned for extraverted behavior, social pressures make them extroverted

electic

claims that no one perspective has all the answers to why we think and behave

testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading information. referred to as retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning

SQ3R

study method incorporation five steps

psychometrics

study of measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits

basic research

pure science that aims to increase scientific knowledge base

developmental psychology

studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout life span

educational psychology

study of how psychological processes affect and can enhance teaching and learning

personality psychology

study of individuals characteristic patterns of thinking, feeling, and acting

social psychology

study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another

applied research

aims to solve practical problems

industrial-organizational (i/o) psychology

application of psychological concepts and methods for better human behavior in workspaces

human factors psychology

field of psychology with i/o that explores how people and machines interact and how machines and physical environments can be made safe and easy to use

counseling psychology

basically therapy and counseling

clinical psychology

treats people with psychological disorders

psychiatry

the medical part of psychological disorders. only by physicians

community psychology

studies how people interact with social environments and how social institutions affect individual and group

hindsight bias

“i knew it all along” phenomenon

theory

aims to explain some phenomenon

operational definition

explains the measure of variables. carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study

replication

repeating the essence of a study, usually with different people and environments, to see if a study is consistent (reliable)

case study

full detailed picture of participant/small group. findings can’t be generalteized to larger population

naturalistic observation

observing natural environment with participant with no manipulation.

survey

has lots of confounding variables, but convenient. but, the random sample has a low response rate

sampling bias

researcher’s unconscious bias to pick a group of participants that *isn’t* accurate to a representative population

population

those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn

random sample

participants picked (sample) in random selection. random meaning that it is pureley by chance; computer, name in hat, random numbers, etc.

correlation

relationship between two variables not because of a cause

positive correlation

variable a’s presence means variable b is there too

negative correlation

variable a’s presence means variable b is absent

correlation coefficient

measurement of the strength of correlation. ranges from -1 and +1, where -1 is perfect negative correlation and +1 means perfect positive correlation. 0 = no correlation.

illusory correlation

when people think there’s a correlation involved but actually isn’t or not as strong as they put it as

regression toward the mean

tendency for extreme or unusual scores or evets to fall back toward the average

experiment

cause & effect relationships are tested

field experiment

out in the world, realistic experiments

lab experiment

highly controlled environment and lots of manipulation for experiment.

experimental group

group exposed to the treatment, the one version of the independent variable

control group

group not exposed to treatment. serves as comparison to experimental group

random assignment

participants are equal chance for any group

double-blind procedure

neither researcher or participants know which group they’re a part of

single blind procedure

only participants don’t know which group they’re a part of

confounding variable

variables that aren’t intended to affect the outcome of the research.

participant confounding variables

participants aren’t assigned randomly because of participants messing it up

situation-relavent confounding variable

participants aren’t assigned randomly because of the situation and environment messing it up. this can include experimenter bias.

validity

accurate data

reliability

can be replicated and still consistent results

informed consent

giving potential participants enough information abt study for consent if they wish to participate

debriefing

tells the purpose of experiment/research after the study

descriptive statistics

describes set of data

positive skew

extreme score is high, meaning more data is more low, less high. shifts right

negative skew

extreme score is low, meaning more data is less low, more high. shifts left

standard deviation

measure of how much scores vary around the mean score.

normal curve

bell shaped curve. symmetrical

inferential statistics

measures whether or not findings can be applied to larger population

statistical significance

stronger correlation + larger pop. = more statistically sig.

basic research

pure research, not for immediate real-world applications

applied research

practical use research

representative sample

a group of people in a certain population that reprsents it

stratified sampling

represents population with criteria. ex. a study how diff. racial groups react a certain way. *it has criteria*

counterbalancing

using control group also as experimental group

group matching

assures groups are equivalent on some criterion. splits groups equivalent. ex. half males and half females in each group

experimenter bias

unconscious tendency for researchers to treat members of the experimental and control groups differently to increase the change of confirming their hypothesis

social desirability

tendency to try to give answers that reflect well upon them

participant or response bias

tendency for subjects to behave certain ways

Hawthorne effect

selecting group affects performance

z score

measure distance of score from mean in standard deviation units

sampling error

extent to which sample differs from population

p value

probability that difference between groups is due to chance. should be 0.5 or less to be statistically significant. means 5% change exists that its because of chance. it can never be 0%, because data isn’t 100% with no chance.

institutional review board (irb)

reviews ethics in research proposals

coercion

involuntary

anonymity

no name

confidentiality

no identity

demand characteristics

cues that might indicate purpose of study for the participants, causing confounding variables

central tendency

marks center distrubution