Untitled Flashcards Set

What is an emotion?

A complex psychological state including subjective experience, physiological response, and expressive response.

What are the components of emotions?

Subjective experience, physiological response, and expressive response.

What are the two branches of the autonomic nervous system?

Sympathetic nervous system and parasympathetic nervous system.

What does activation of the sympathetic nervous system lead to?

Increased heart rate, dilated pupils, heightened alertness.

What does activation of the parasympathetic nervous system lead to?

Decreased heart rate, constricted pupils, enhanced digestion.

According to the James-Lange theory of emotion, what comes first?

Physiological responses precede and contribute to emotional experiences.

What do findings from individuals with pure autonomic failure suggest about the James-Lange theory?

Physiological component is crucial for fully experiencing emotions.

Do simulated facial expressions affect emotions?

Yes, research indicates they can influence emotional experiences.

What brain structure is crucial for emotion recognition?

Amygdala.

What is the role of the prefrontal cortex in emotional regulation?

Involved in emotional regulation and decision-making.

What happens to individuals with amygdala damage regarding fearful faces?

They have difficulty recognizing fearful faces.

What is the mechanism by which benzodiazepine tranquilizers reduce anxiety?

They enhance the effect of GABA at GABA-A receptors.

What does the General Adaptation Syndrome include?

Alarm stage, resistance stage, and exhaustion stage.

What are neutrophils responsible for?

Engulfing and destroying pathogens.

What is the conditioned stimulus in Pavlov’s experiment?

The neutral stimulus that becomes associated with the unconditioned stimulus.

What is the unconditioned response in Pavlov’s experiment?

The unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus.

What is a reinforcer in operant conditioning?

Any stimulus that strengthens or increases the probability of a specific response.

What is punishment in operant conditioning?

Any consequence that decreases the likelihood of a behavior recurring.

What did Lashley’s term 'engram' refer to?

The physical trace or representation of memory in the brain.

What does the principle of equipotentiality state?

Any part of the brain can take over the function of another part if it's damaged.

What is the difference between short-term and long-term memory?

Short-term memory is temporary storage, while long-term memory is more permanent storage.

What is working memory?

A limited capacity mental workspace for temporarily holding and processing information.

What do older individuals with poor working memory exhibit in the prefrontal cortex?

Reduced activation indicating less efficient processing.

What are episodic memories?

Memories of specific events personally experienced.

What are semantic memories?

Knowledge about the world, facts, and concepts not tied to experiences.

What is anterograde amnesia?

Difficulty forming new memories after the onset of amnesia.

What is retrograde amnesia?

Loss of memories formed before the onset of the condition.

What is the role of the hippocampus in memory?

Crucial for the formation and retrieval of declarative memories.

What type of learning is associated with the basal ganglia?

Procedural learning.

What is a 'Hebbian' synapse?

A synapse that strengthens when two neurons are activated simultaneously.

What triggers long-term potentiation?

Persistent and repeated activation of synapses.

What is the role of NMDA receptors in long-term potentiation?

They allow calcium ions to flow into the neuron when depolarized.

What is lateralization in the brain?

Specialization of certain functions or processes in one hemisphere over the other.

Which hemisphere is dominant for language?

The left hemisphere.

What abilities do split-brain patients struggle with?

Verbal expression of objects seen in their right visual field.

What did Roger Sperry conclude from his split-brain experiments?

Each hemisphere has distinct functions.

What are the language deficits associated with Broca’s aphasia?

Difficulty with speech production but retains comprehension.

What are the language deficits associated with Wernicke’s aphasia?

Fluent speech with significant comprehension impairment.

What is an agonist drug?

A substance that activates a receptor to produce a biological response.

What is an antagonist drug?

A substance that blocks or inhibits the action of a receptor.

What neurotransmitter is most commonly linked to addiction?

Dopamine.

What is drug tolerance?

The need for increasing amounts of a drug to achieve the desired effect.

What are symptoms of major depressive disorder?

Persistent sadness, loss of interest, changes in appetite, and sleep disturbances.

What findings did Caspi et al. discover regarding the serotonin transporter gene?

Short allele variants are associated with a higher probability of developing depression.

What is the role of tricyclic antidepressants?

To inhibit the reuptake of norepinephrine and serotonin.

What is Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT)?

A treatment that induces seizures to relieve severe mental health disorders.

What is seasonal affective disorder (SAD)?

Depression occurring at certain times of the year, usually winter.

What is a common treatment for seasonal affective disorder?

Light therapy.

What is the most commonly prescribed medication for bipolar disorder?

Lithium.

What symptoms characterize bipolar disorder?

Mood swings that include emotional highs (mania) and lows (depression).

What do valproate and carbamazepine share in common with lithium?

They are anticonvulsants that stabilize mood.

What factors can trigger drug cravings?

Environmental cues, stress, exposure to drug-related people.

What are the consequences of drug withdrawal?

Symptoms like anxiety, nausea, and physical discomfort.

What is the function of MAOIs?

To inhibit the breakdown of neurotransmitters, increasing their availability.

What brain area is linked to drug addiction?

The ventral tegmental area (VTA).

What do individuals with prefrontal cortex damage often exhibit?

Impulsivity, poor decision-making, and difficulty with emotional regulation.

What characterizes the language of individuals with Williams syndrome?

Rich vocabulary but challenges with abstract and pragmatic language skills.

Can individuals with language deficits possess normal intelligence?

Yes, language and intelligence are not always correlated.

What did language studies with bonobos conclude?

They showed a greater capacity for symbolic communication than chimpanzees.

What is a Complex Psychological State?

An emotional experience involving subjective feelings, physiological reactions, and expressive responses.

What influences emotional expression?

Individual experiences and cultural context greatly influence how emotions are expressed.

What is the role of physiological response in emotions?

Physiological responses include heart rate changes and hormone release that contribute to the emotional experience.

How does the autonomic nervous system relate to emotions?

It controls physiological responses during emotional reactions, with sympathetic and parasympathetic branches playing key roles.

What are some stress responses activated by the sympathetic nervous system?

Increased heart rate, dilated pupils, and heightened alertness preparing the body for action.

What are calming responses facilitated by the parasympathetic nervous system?

Decreased heart rate, constricted pupils, and enhanced digestion to restore energy.

What can trigger emotional feelings according to the James-Lange theory?

Physiological responses to stimuli precede the conscious experience of emotion.

What evidence supports the James-Lange theory of emotion?

People with pure autonomic failure experience diminished emotional responses, highlighting the role of physiological reactions.

What is the significance of facial expressions in emotional context?

Facial expressions can influence the emotional experience; simulating a happy expression can lead to feeling happier.

Which brain structures are critical for emotional regulation?

The amygdala, prefrontal cortex, and hippocampus play essential roles in processing and regulating emotions.

How does the amygdala relate to fear responses?

The amygdala is primarily responsible for processing fear and triggering appropriate responses.

What is the relationship between memory and emotions?

Emotional experiences can enhance the retention and retrieval of memories due to their significance.

What is the Behavioral Activation System (BAS)?

A neural system associated with positive emotions and the pursuit of rewards.

What is the Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS)?

A system that deals with the prevention of negative outcomes and the avoidance of aversive experiences.

What common symptoms indicate damage to the prefrontal cortex?

Impulsivity, emotional dysregulation, difficulty in planning, and impaired decision-making.

How does testosterone impact aggressive behavior?

Higher levels of testosterone are linked to increased aggressive behavior in both humans and animals.

What is serotonin turnover and its relevance?

The rate of serotonin metabolism in the body; low turnover rates are associated with higher aggression levels.

What memory functions are impaired by hippocampal damage?

Declarative memories, especially episodic memories, are often impaired, while implicit memories remain intact.

What are emotional responses related to learned fears?

Learned fears are processed through the amygdala, which encodes emotional responses to stimuli.

How do tranquilizers affect anxiety?

Benzodiazepines enhance GABA effects, leading to increased inhibition and a calming effect on the brain.

What is the General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)?

A three-stage response to stress comprising alarm, resistance, and exhaustion stages.

What is the role of leukocytes in the immune system?

Different types of leukocytes (e.g., neutrophils, lymphocytes) help protect the body against pathogens.

What is classical conditioning?

A learning process where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus to elicit a conditioned response.

What is operant conditioning?

A type of learning where behaviors are modified based on their consequences, either reinforced or punished.

What is the difference between reinforcement and punishment?

Reinforcement increases the likelihood of a behavior, while punishment decreases it.

What does the term 'engram' refer to?

A theoretical construct representing the physical trace or memory in the brain.

What are the principles of mass action?

Learning and memory efficiency is proportional to the amount of cortical tissue available for memory storage.

What role does the lateral interpositus nucleus play in learning?

It is crucial for the acquisition and retention of conditioned responses.

What are the primary differences between short-term and long-term memory?

Short-term memory holds information temporarily for seconds, whereas long-term memory stores information for extended periods.

What brain structures are associated with working memory?

The prefrontal cortex plays a key role in maintaining and manipulating information in working memory.

What is amnesia?

A condition characterized by severe memory loss affecting an individual's ability to recall information.

What is the difference between episodic and semantic memories?

Episodic memories pertain to personal experiences, while semantic memories encompass general knowledge and facts.

What factors impact the formation of long-term memories?

Emotional significance, rehearsal, and the context of the information influence memory formation.

What are the common symptoms of depression?

Persistent sadness, loss of interest in activities, fatigue, changes in sleep and appetite, and feelings of worthlessness.

What role does the left prefrontal cortex play in mood?

It is associated with positive emotions and goal-directed behavior; reduced activity in this area is linked to depression.

What are the characteristics of Broca's aphasia?

Difficulty in speech production while comprehension remains relatively intact.

What are the characteristics of Wernicke's aphasia?

Fluent speech with poor comprehension, often leading to nonsensical or irrelevant responses.

What is seasonal affective disorder (SAD)?

A type of depression that occurs at specific times of the year, generally during fall and winter.

What is the primary treatment for SAD?

Light therapy, which mimics natural sunlight to alleviate symptoms

In addition to the neurotransmitter glutamate, in order to activate the NMDA receptors, the neuron requires ____.

removal of magnesium ions from sodium and calcium channels

Nearly simultaneous stimulation by two or more axons produces LTP, whereas stimulation by just one produces it weakly, if at all. This is known as the property of ____.

cooperativity