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Study Guide Exam 3

Chapter 11: Emotional Behaviors

• What is an emotion?

  • An emotion is a complex psychological state that includes a subjective experience, a physiological response, and an expressive response, heavily influenced by individual experiences and cultural context.

• What are the components of emotions?

  • The components of emotions include the subjective experience, which is the personal interpretation of the emotion; the physiological response, such as changes in heart rate or hormone levels; and the expressive response, which encompasses facial expressions and body language that convey the emotion to others.

• What are the two branches of the autonomic nervous system?

  • The two branches of the autonomic nervous system are the sympathetic nervous system, which prepares the body for 'fight or flight' responses, and the parasympathetic nervous system, which promotes 'rest and digest' functions.

• What reactions are associated with the activation of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems? What are the differences between the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems?

  • The sympathetic nervous system activates stress responses, resulting in increased heart rate, dilated pupils, and heightened alertness to prepare the body for action.

  • In contrast, the parasympathetic nervous system facilitates calming responses, leading to decreased heart rate, constricted pupils, and enhanced digestion to restore energy reserves.

• How does the autonomic nervous system relate to emotions according to the James-Lange theory of emotion? What comes first in the James-Lange theory of emotion?

  • According to the James-Lange theory of emotion, the physiological responses elicited by the autonomic nervous system precede and contribute to the emotional experience. This means that the body reacts to a stimulus (for example, increased heart rate or sweating) before the individual consciously experiences an emotion (such as fear or excitement).

• Evidence in favor of and against the James-Lange theory of emotion

• What do the findings from people with pure autonomic failure suggest regarding the James-Lange theory of emotion?

  • Research shows that individuals with pure autonomic failure experience a limited range of emotional responses, indicating that the physiological component of emotion is crucial for fully experiencing emotions, thus lending support to the James-Lange theory.

• Does feedback from facial expressions of emotions have an influence on emotions? What do the studies suggest? Particularly, do simulated facial expressions of emotions affect your emotions? 

  • Research indicates that feedback from facial expressions can indeed influence emotional experiences; studies have shown that individuals who simulate facial expressions of happiness, for example, report feeling more positive emotions compared to those who do not, supporting the idea that our emotional state can be affected by our bodily expressions.

• What brain structures appear to be critical for emotion?

  • the amygdala, which is crucial for emotion recognition and responses,

  • the prefrontal cortex, which is involved in emotional regulation and decision-making,

  • the hippocampus, which is linked to emotional memory.

• Is a particular emotion located in a specific brain area?

  • Research suggests that while emotions are not confined to one specific area of the brain, certain regions are activated more prominently during the experience of particular emotions. For instance, the amygdala is often associated with fear responses, while the orbitofrontal cortex plays a significant role in processing reward-related emotions.  

• Evidence both in favor of and against basic emotions.

• What are the characteristics of the Behavioral Activation System and of the Behavioral Inhibition System?

  • Behavioral Activation System (BAS): This system is primarily associated with the pursuit of rewards and the experience of positive emotions. It is activated in response to cues for potential rewards, leading to increased motivation, goal-directed behavior, and approach responses.

  • Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS): This system is associated with the prevention of negative outcomes and the experience of aversive emotions. It becomes activated in response to signals of punishment or non-reward, leading to avoidance behavior, heightened anxiety, and cautiousness.

• What are the common symptoms of individuals with prefrontal cortex damage? Why people with prefrontal cortex damage make bad decisions?

  • Individuals with prefrontal cortex damage commonly exhibit symptoms such as impulsivity, difficulty in planning and organizing tasks, and problems with emotional regulation. This damage often leads to poor decision-making because these individuals may struggle to evaluate the long-term consequences of their actions, impairing their ability to weigh risks and rewards effectively.

• What is the relation between testosterone and aggressive behaviors in both human and nonhuman animals?

  • Research indicates that testosterone levels are positively correlated with aggression; higher levels of testosterone can lead to increased aggressive behaviors in various species, including humans. Studies show that both animal models and human observations support the idea that elevated testosterone can enhance competitive and dominance-related behaviors, resulting in a propensity for confrontational or aggressive actions.

• What the term "serotonin turnover" refers to?  What is the relation between serotonin turnover and aggressive behaviors in both human and nonhuman animals?

  • Serotonin turnover refers to the rate at which serotonin, a key neurotransmitter involved in mood regulation, is synthesized and metabolized in the body. Research has shown that lower serotonin turnover is often associated with higher levels of aggression, as it may negatively affect impulse control and emotional regulation in both human and nonhuman animals.

• What area of the brain seems to be critical for learned fears?

  • The amygdala is widely recognized as the area of the brain critical for the formation and retrieval of learned fears, playing a vital role in processing emotional responses and fear-related memories.

• Why people with amygdala damage have difficulty with recognizing fearful faces? And what does this suggest regarding the role of the amygdala?

  • They tend to focus their attention on the nose and mouth of faces instead of the eyes. This indicates that the amygdala is integral to processing facial emotions, particularly fear, as it helps direct attention to the most relevant cues when interpreting social signals.

• Pharmacological treatments for anxiety: What is the mechanism by which most tranquilizers reduce anxiety? How do benzodiazepine tranquilizers reduce anxiety? Specifically, how do benzodiazepine tranquilizers affect GABA synapses? What are the chemical mechanisms by which alcohol reduce anxiety?

  • Benzodiazepine tranquilizers enhance the effect of the neurotransmitter GABA at the GABA-A receptor, increasing inhibitory neurotransmission and leading to a calming effect on the brain.

  • Alcohol acts as a GABA-A agonist as well, promoting sedation and anxiolytic effects, though it also affects other neurotransmitter systems such as dopamine and glutamate, which can contribute to its overall impact on anxiety.

• Stress and Health: What is the General Adaptation Syndrome? What are the characteristics of the General Adaptation Syndrome?

  The General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) is a three-stage response to stress that includes:

  • Alarm Stage: The initial reaction to stress, where the body mobilizes its resources to respond to the perceived threat.

  • Resistance Stage: The body attempts to adapt to the ongoing stressful situation, maintaining a heightened state of alertness and physiological functions.

  • Exhaustion Stage: Prolonged stress leads to depletion of the body's resources, resulting in reduced functioning and potential health issues.

• The Immune System: What are the different kinds of leukocytes and their functions? Which chemicals released by the immune system attack infections and communicate with the brain to elicit anti-illness behaviors?

  • Neutrophils: The most abundant type of white blood cell, primarily responsible for engulfing and destroying pathogens.

  • Lymphocytes: Crucial for adaptive immunity, including T cells that kill infected cells and B cells that produce antibodies.

  • Monocytes: Differentiate into macrophages and dendritic cells, which help in phagocytosis and presenting antigens to T cells.

    • Eosinophils: Combat parasites and are involved in allergic reactions.

      • Basophils: Release histamine and other chemicals during allergic responses and inflammation, facilitating the immune response.

Chapter 12: The Biology of Learning and Memory

• Classical Conditioning: In Pavlov’s experiment what is: a) the conditioned stimulus b) the unconditioned stimulus c) the unconditioned response d) the conditioned response?

  • a) The conditioned stimulus is the neutral stimulus that becomes associated with the unconditioned stimulus (e.g., the sound of a bell).

  • b) The unconditioned stimulus is a stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response (e.g., food).

  • c) The unconditioned response is the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (e.g., salivation when food is presented).

  • d) The conditioned response is the learned response to the previously neutral stimulus (e.g., salivation in response to the bell after conditioning).

• Instrumental or Operant Conditioning: What is  a reinforcer (reinforcement)? What is punishment?

  • In operant conditioning, a reinforcer is any stimulus that strengthens or increases the probability of a specific response, while punishment refers to any consequence that decreases the likelihood of a behavior recurring.

• Lashley’s Search for the Engram: What does Lashley's term "engram" refer to? Lashley’s experiments: What did he do? What were the results and conclusions of his experiments? What do the principles of equipotentiality and mass action postulate?

  • Lashley's term "engram" refers to the physical trace or representation of memory in the brain. In his experiments, he conducted a series of lesion studies on rats to determine if specific areas of the brain were responsible for memory storage. The results indicated that memories were not localized to specific brain areas, leading to the conclusions that memories could be distributed across various brain regions. The principles of equipotentiality suggest that any part of the brain can take over the function of another part if it's damaged, while mass action postulates that the efficiency of learning is proportional to the amount of cortex available for storage of the memory.

• The Modern Search for the Engram: Thompson and his colleagues studied eyelid conditioning in rabbits. What did they conclude regarding the roles of the lateral interpositus nucleus of the cerebellum and the red nucleus of the midbrain in learning?

  • Their findings indicated that the lateral interpositus nucleus is critical for the acquisition and retention of conditioned responses, while the red nucleus plays a role in the expression of the learned behavior.

• What are the differences between short-term and long-term memory?

  • Short-term memory refers to the temporary storage of information for a brief period, typically seconds to minutes, allowing for immediate recall and processing, whereas long-term memory involves the more permanent storage of information that can last from hours to a lifetime and is essential for knowledge retention and retrieval.

• Working Memory: What are the characteristics of working memory? What is the function of working memory? What brain structures are associated with working memory?

  • Working memory is characterized by its limited capacity to hold information temporarily, enabling individuals to manipulate and process this information when performing cognitive tasks. It serves as a mental workspace, essential for reasoning and decision-making, with key brain structures including the prefrontal cortex, which plays a pivotal role in maintaining and updating relevant information.

• Characteristics of Working Memory and Brain structures involved in Working Memory. What is the pattern of activity in the prefrontal cortex that is exhibited by older individuals who have poor working memory and by older individuals with intact working memory?

  • Research suggests that older individuals with poor working memory may exhibit reduced activation in the prefrontal cortex, indicating less efficient processing and maintenance of information. In contrast, those with intact working memory typically show a more balanced and sustained pattern of activation in this brain region, reflecting better cognitive control and resource allocation during tasks demanding high cognitive load.

• What memories are preserved and what memories are impaired after hippocampal damage? What are the differences between declarative (explicit) and implicit memories? What are the differences between episodic and semantic memories?

  • Declarative (explicit) memories: These are memories that can be consciously recalled, including facts and events. They are often impaired with hippocampal damage, particularly episodic memories, which pertain to personal experiences and specific events in time.

  • Implicit memories: These involve skills and conditioned responses that are not consciously recalled, such as riding a bike or playing a musical instrument; these tend to be preserved even after hippocampal damage.

  • Differences between episodic and semantic memories:

    • Episodic memories refer to specific events that an individual has personally experienced, often linked to a particular time and place.

    • Semantic memories, on the other hand, encompass knowledge about the world, facts, concepts, and general information that is not tied to a particular experience.

• What is amnesia? What are the symptoms of anterograde amnesia? What are the symptoms of retrograde amnesia.

  • Amnesia is a condition characterized by the loss of memory, which can significantly impair an individual's ability to recall information or experiences. Symptoms of anterograde amnesia include difficulty forming new memories, inability to learn new information after the onset of the amnesia, and challenges with recalling recent events. In contrast, symptoms of retrograde amnesia involve the loss of memories that were formed before the onset of the condition, including past experiences and information that the individual once knew.

• What are the proposed roles of the hippocampus in declarative, spatial, and contextual memories?

  • The hippocampus is believed to play a crucial role in the formation and retrieval of declarative memories, which include both episodic and semantic memories. Additionally, it is integral to spatial memory, helping navigate and remember locations and routes. Furthermore, the hippocampus contributes to contextual memory by linking experiences with their environmental contexts, enabling individuals to recall specific details based on situational cues.

• What is the role of the basal ganglia in learning? What kind of learning is associated with the basal ganglia?

  • The basal ganglia are primarily involved in procedural learning, which includes the acquisition of skills and habits through repetition and practice. This brain structure helps to facilitate motor control and the automation of tasks, allowing individuals to perform learned behaviors with greater efficiency.

• What is a “Hebbian" synapse? Hebbian synapses are critical for which kind of learning?

  • Hebbian synapses are based on the principle that "cells that fire together, wire together," meaning that the strengthening of synaptic connections occurs when two neurons are activated simultaneously. This mechanism is critical for associative learning, where relationships between stimuli are formed, allowing for the improvement of memory and learning.

• What are the mechanisms behind habituation and sensitization? What are the differences between habituation and sensitization?

  • Habituation is a decrease in response to a repeated, benign stimulus, while sensitization is an increased response to a stimulus due to prior exposure to a strong or noxious stimulus. In essence, habituation leads to a reduced behavioral response over time, whereas sensitization enhances responsiveness, emphasizing different adaptive functions in learning and memory.

• How is long-term potentiation induced?

  • Long-term potentiation (LTP) is induced through the persistent and repeated activation of synapses that leads to an increase in synaptic strength, which often involves calcium influx through NMDA receptors, resulting in various molecular signaling pathways that enhance neurotransmitter release and receptor sensitivity.

• What is the specificity property, cooperativity property, and associativity property of long-term potentiation?

  • Specificity property: Only the synapses that are active during the stimulation will exhibit increased strength, meaning that adjacent, inactive synapses will not undergo potentiation.

  • Cooperativity property: Several synapses need to be stimulated simultaneously to achieve LTP, illustrating that coordinated activity can enhance synaptic efficacy.

  • Associativity property: Weakly stimulated synapses can be strengthened if they are activated near the same time as strongly stimulated synapses, promoting a relationship between the two.

• What is the role of AMPA and NMDA receptors in long term potentiation? Besides glutamate, what is required to activate NMDA receptors?

  • In addition to glutamate binding, NMDA receptors require depolarization of the postsynaptic membrane to remove the magnesium block, allowing calcium ions to flow into the neuron, which is crucial for the induction of long-term potentiation.

Chapter 13: Cognitive Functions (Module 13.1 Lateralization of Function -pages 424 to 434- and Module 13.2: Evolution and Physiology of Language -pages 435 to 447)

• Are sensation and movement controlled by the contralateral or ipsilateral hemisphere?

  • Sensation and movement are primarily controlled by the contralateral hemisphere, meaning that the left hemisphere controls the right side of the body and the right hemisphere controls the left side.

• The right hemisphere receives visual information from which part of the visual field? The left hemisphere receives information from which part of the visual field? The left hemisphere receives auditory information mainly from which ear? The right hemisphere receives auditory information mainly from which ear?

  • The right hemisphere receives visual information from the left visual field. The left hemisphere receives information from the right visual field. The left hemisphere receives auditory information mainly from the right ear. The right hemisphere receives auditory information mainly from the left ear.

• Which structure allows the exchange of information between the two hemisphere

  • The corpus callosum allows the exchange of information between the two hemispheres, facilitating communication and coordination of activities.

• What is lateralization?

  • Lateralization refers to the specialization of certain functions or processes in one hemisphere of the brain over the other, leading to distinct cognitive abilities and processing styles associated with each side.

• Which hemisphere is dominant for language?

  • In most individuals, the left hemisphere is dominant for language processing, encompassing abilities such as vocabulary, grammar, and comprehension.

• Who is referred to as a “split brain patient”? What are the abilities and deficits exhibited by split-brain patients?

  • A "split brain patient" refers to individuals who have undergone a surgical procedure called callosotomy, where the corpus callosum connecting the two hemispheres is severed.

  • Split-brain patients exhibit unique abilities and deficits, including the inability to verbally describe objects seen in the right visual field, which is processed by the left hemisphere, while they can identify them with their left hand, controlled by the right hemisphere.

• Roger Sperry’s split-brain experiments: What did he do? What did he find regarding what split brain patients could and could not do? What did he conclude?

  • Roger Sperry conducted a series of pioneering experiments using split-brain patients to investigate the functional specialization of the cerebral hemispheres. He found that these individuals could name objects that were presented to their left visual field (processed by the right hemisphere) only when using their left hand, indicating that verbal expression was predominantly a function of the left hemisphere. Conversely, when objects were presented in the right visual field, split-brain patients could easily name them, demonstrating the intact language processing capabilities of the left hemisphere. Sperry concluded that each hemisphere has distinct functions, with the left hemisphere being more involved in speech and language, and the right hemisphere providing more non-verbal processing capabilities.

• What are the functions associated with the left hemisphere? What abilities/functions are impaired after damage to the left hemisphere?

  • The left hemisphere is primarily associated with functions such as language processing, verbal reasoning, analytical thinking, and sequential processing. Abilities that may be impaired following damage to the left hemisphere include difficulties in speech production and comprehension (aphasia), reduced ability to read and write, and challenges in performing mathematical calculations.

• What are the functions associated with the right hemisphere? What abilities/functions are impaired after damage to the right hemisphere?

  • The right hemisphere is primarily associated with functions such as spatial awareness, intuitive reasoning, holistic processing, and recognition of faces and emotions. Abilities that may be impaired following damage to the right hemisphere include difficulties in understanding non-verbal cues, challenges in perceiving the overall context of situations, and impairments in visual-spatial tasks, which may affect navigation and the ability to interpret spatial relationships.

• What did language studies with common chimpanzees conclude? What did language studies with bonobos conclude? Which nonhuman species has made the most spectacular progress toward learning to communicate by an approximation of human language?

  • Language studies with common chimpanzees concluded that while they can learn to use symbols and gestures, their ability to construct complex sentences and engage in conversation is very limited compared to humans.

  • Studies with bonobos, on the other hand, showed more promising results, as they exhibited a greater capacity for symbolic communication and demonstrated more advanced social interactions utilizing learned language skills.

  • The species that has made the most spectacular progress toward learning to communicate by an approximation of human language is the bonobo, largely due to their social nature and ability to understand and use a larger vocabulary of signs and symbols.

• What are the characteristics of children with Williams syndrome? What do they struggle with? What are the characteristics of the language of Children with Williams syndrome?

  • Children with Williams syndrome often exhibit a distinctive profile including strong language skills relative to their cognitive abilities, a friendly demeanor, and a tendency to engage socially. However, they may struggle with spatial reasoning, problem-solving, and have difficulties with concrete reasoning tasks. Their language characteristics include a rich vocabulary, particularly in social contexts, and a tendency to use overly elaborate or poetic expressions despite having challenges with abstract language and pragmatic language skills.

• What is the apparent relationship between language abilities and other intellectual abilities: Could someone with language deficits have normal intelligence? Could someone with intellectual deficits have good language?

  • Research suggests that language abilities and intellectual abilities are not always correlated; individuals can exhibit a divergence where one domain may be stronger than the other. For instance, it is possible for someone to possess normal intelligence while facing challenges in language development, impacting their ability to express thoughts effectively. Conversely, some individuals with intellectual disabilities may demonstrate surprisingly strong language skills, using them to engage socially and communicate effectively, thereby highlighting the complexity of cognitive profiles in relation to language.

• Who are the proponents of the language acquisition device? What is the language acquisition device?

  • Proponents of the language acquisition device include Noam Chomsky, who theorized that humans are born with an innate ability to acquire language;

  • The language acquisition device (LAD) refers to the hypothetical mental structure that enables infants to acquire and understand language.

• A Sensitive Period for Language Leaning: What is the strongest evidence for a sensitive period for language learning? What does research with deaf children suggest?

  • Research suggests that there is a critical window in early childhood during which language acquisition occurs most easily, known as the sensitive period. Studies with deaf children show that those who are exposed to sign language at a young age develop language skills more rapidly and effectively than those who learn it later in life, thus supporting the idea that exposure during this sensitive period is crucial for optimal language development.

• Where is the Broca’s area located? According to Wernicke’s studies, damage to what part of the brain results in what is called Wernicke’s aphasia. Where is the Wernicke’s area located?

  • Wernicke's area is typically located in the posterior part of the left superior temporal gyrus, which is essential for language comprehension.  

• What language deficits are associated with Broca’s Aphasia? What language deficits are associated with Wernicke’s Aphasia. What language functions are spared in Broca’s aphasia? What language functions are spared in Wernicke’s aphasia? What are the characteristics of language in individuals with Broca’s aphasia? What are the characteristics of language in individuals with Wernicke’s aphasia?

  • In Broca's aphasia, individuals typically retain their ability to understand spoken language and their awareness of their condition, which allows for some self-correction during communication.

  • Conversely, in Wernicke's aphasia, individuals often show fluent speech with normal prosody but may produce nonsensical words or phrases, demonstrating a significant impairment in language comprehension.

Chapter 14: Psychological Disorders (Module 14.1: Substance Abuse and Addiction -pages 466 to 474- and Module 14.2: Mood Disorders -pages 475 to 486) 

• Drug Mechanisms: What is an agonist drug? What is an antagonist drug? What is affinity? What is efficacy?

  • Agonist Drug: A substance that activates a receptor to produce a biological response, mimicking the action of a naturally occurring substance.

    • Antagonist Drug: A substance that blocks or inhibits the action of a receptor, preventing the natural substance from exerting its effects.

    • Affinity: The degree to which a drug binds to a receptor, indicating how tightly a substance interacts with its target.

    • Efficacy: The capacity of a drug to produce a desired effect or response once it binds to a receptor.

• Which brain area is often linked to drug addiction? Which neurotransmitter has been repeatedly connected with addictive drugs?

  • The brain area often linked to drug addiction is the ventral tegmental area (VTA).

  • The neurotransmitter that has been repeatedly connected with addictive drugs is dopamine.

• What are drug cravings? What kind of stimuli can trigger drug cravings?

  • Drug cravings are intense urges to use a substance, often accompanied by physical and emotional symptoms. Certain stimuli, such as environmental cues, stress, or exposure to drug-related people and places, can trigger these cravings.

• What is drug tolerance? What are the consequences of drug tolerance? What is drug withdrawal?

  • Drug tolerance refers to the phenomenon where an individual requires increasing amounts of a drug to achieve the desired effect, due to the body's adaptation to the substance. The consequences of drug tolerance can include a higher risk of overdose, dependence on the drug, and the development of more severe withdrawal symptoms when not using the substance. Drug withdrawal entails a range of symptoms that occur when the use of a substance is abruptly reduced or stopped, which can include anxiety, nausea, and physical discomfort.

• What are the conclusions of studies that have attempted to identify individual genes associated with addiction?

  • Research has shown that certain genetic factors can influence an individual's susceptibility to addiction, highlighting the role of specific genes in the development of addictive behaviors and the response to treatment.

• Medications to Combat Alcohol Abuse: What is the mechanism of action of Antabuse? What is the mechanism of action of Naloxone? How effective are these drugs?

  • Antabuse (Disulfiram): This medication works by inhibiting the enzyme acetaldehyde dehydrogenase, leading to unpleasant reactions when alcohol is consumed, thereby discouraging drinking.

  • Naloxone: It acts as an opioid antagonist, rapidly reversing the effects of opioid overdose by binding to the same receptors in the brain without activating them.

  • Effectiveness: Both medications have shown efficacy in treating alcohol abuse; Antabuse is usually more effective in individuals who are committed to abstinence, while Naloxone is crucial in emergency situations to prevent overdose deaths.

• Medications to combat opiate abuse: What is the mechanism of action of: Methadone, Buprenorphine and LAAM? How effective are these drugs? What are the main advantages of LAAM over other drugs?

  • Methadone: A long-acting opioid agonist that activates opioid receptors, reducing withdrawal symptoms and cravings for other opioids. It is effective in decreasing illicit opioid use and improving retention in treatment programs.

  • Buprenorphine: A partial opioid agonist that binds to opioid receptors but does not produce the same high as full agonists, helping to alleviate withdrawal symptoms with a lower risk of overdose.

  • LAAM (Levo-alpha-acetylmethadol): A long-acting opioid agonist that has a prolonged effect, allowing for less frequent dosing, which can improve adherence to treatment. Its advantages include reducing the need for daily visits and potential for lower overall costs of treatment.

• What are the symptoms of major depressive disorder? What are the differences between depressed individuals and non-depressed individuals?

  • Major depressive disorder symptoms include persistent sadness, loss of interest in activities, changes in appetite, sleep disturbances, fatigue, feelings of worthlessness, and difficulty concentrating.

  • Differences between depressed and non-depressed individuals can include variations in mood regulation, cognitive functions, and social interactions, with depressed individuals often experiencing a significant decrease in motivation and engagement in daily activities.

• Gene-environment interaction in major depression: What is the serotonin transporter? What did Caspi and colleagues find regarding the serotonin transporter genes (the short type and the long type) and the probability of depression (section Genetics in pages 475 and 476 of your textbook).

  • The serotonin transporter is a protein that facilitates the reuptake of serotonin from the synaptic cleft, influencing mood regulation. Caspi and colleagues discovered that individuals with one or two short allele variants of the serotonin transporter gene had a higher probability of developing depression, especially in the presence of stressful life events, compared to those with the long allele.

• Abnormalities of Hemispheric Dominance: What are the differences in the level of activity of the left versus the right prefrontal cortex in most individuals with depression?

  • Research indicates that individuals with depression often exhibit reduced activity in the left prefrontal cortex, which is associated with positive emotions and goal-directed behavior, while the right prefrontal cortex may show heightened activity, correlating with negative emotions and withdrawal tendencies.

• Antidepressant Drugs: What are the mechanisms of action of 1) tricyclic antidepressants 2) selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) and 3) MAOIs.

  • 1) Tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs) work by inhibiting the reuptake of norepinephrine and serotonin, thereby increasing the levels of these neurotransmitters in the synaptic cleft, which can help alleviate depressive symptoms.

  • 2) Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) specifically block the reuptake of serotonin, enhancing serotonergic transmission and improving mood.

  • 3) Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) function by inhibiting the activity of monoamine oxidase, an enzyme responsible for breaking down neurotransmitters like serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine, thus increasing their availability in the brain.

• What is Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT)? When is electroconvulsive therapy most appropriate? What are the side effects of electroconvulsive therapy? What are the pros and cons of electroconvulsive therapy?

  • Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT) is a psychiatric treatment that involves electrically induced seizures to provide relief from severe mental health disorders, particularly major depressive episodes. ECT is most appropriate for patients who have not responded to conventional medication treatments, have severe suicidal ideation, or experience catatonia. Side effects of ECT may include temporary memory loss, confusion, and physical side effects related to the anesthesia used during the procedure. The pros of ECT include rapid alleviation of severe depressive symptoms and its effectiveness when other treatments fail, while the cons may encompass the risk of cognitive side effects and the stigma associated with receiving such treatment.

• Bipolar Disorder: What are the symptoms of bipolar disorder? What is the difference between bipolar I disorder and bipolar II disorder? What is the most commonly prescribed drug for bipolar disorder? What do the drugs valproate and carbamazepine share in common with lithium?

  • Bipolar disorder is characterized by mood swings that include emotional highs (mania or hypomania) and lows (depression). Common symptoms can involve significant changes in energy, activity levels, and the ability to carry out daily tasks.
    The distinction between bipolar I disorder and bipolar II disorder lies primarily in the severity and duration of manic episodes: bipolar I typically features more severe manic episodes, while bipolar II includes milder hypomanic episodes.
    Lithium is the most commonly prescribed medication for managing bipolar disorder, recognized for its efficacy in stabilizing mood fluctuations.
    Valproate and carbamazepine, like lithium, are anticonvulsants that can also stabilize mood and are often used as alternative treatments for patients who may not respond well to lithium.

• What is seasonal affective disorder? Where is seasonal affective disorder most common? What is one of the best treatments for seasonal affective disorder?​

  • Seasonal affective disorder (SAD) is a type of depression that occurs at certain times of the year, typically during the fall and winter months when there is less natural sunlight. It is most common in regions farther from the equator, where daylight hours are significantly shorter during the winter. One of the best treatments for SAD is light therapy, which involves exposure to a specially designed light box that mimics natural sunlight.