Unit 0: Research methods in Psychology

Psychodynamic Perspective

Emphasizes that behavior is determined by your past experiences that are left in the unconscious mind and childhood experiences are crucial in shaping adult personality (thumb)

Cognitive Perspective

Focuses on memory, intelligence, perception, problem solving, language, and learning (internal processes of the mind) influencing behavior (index finger)

Behavioral Perspective

Focus on observable behaviors and learned behaviors., People/Animals are controlled by their environment (middle finger)

Humanistic Perspective

Emphasizes the human capacity for choice and growth, Positive outlook on people related to their motivation to fulfill their potential (ring finger)

Biological Perspective

The influence of genetics and brain chemistry on thinking and behavior  (pinky finger)

Sociocultural Perspective

Focuses on society and culture in terms of our behavior and shaping cognition, Eclectic Approach (middle 3 fingers in palm)

Evolutionary Perspective

Psychologists and researchers take the basic principles of evolution, including natural selection, and apply them to psychological phenomena (wrist)

Biopsychosocial Approach

Eclectic (combining) Approach, Multiple perspectives included, Links between genetics and environment (whole hand)

psychology

The scientific study of behavior and mental processes in both humans and animals

nature

All of the genes and hereditary factors that influence who we are—from our physical appearance to our personality characteristics

nurture

Refers to all the environmental variables that impact who we are

Confirmation bias

people tend to look for, interpret, or remember information in a way that confirms what they already believe. (cognitive bias)

hindsight bias

people believe that they knew something was going to happen after it has already occurred, even if they didn't actually predict it beforehand.

overconfidence

when people have too much faith in their own judgments or abilities, thinking they know more than they actually do.

emperical evidence

refers to information that is obtained through observation, experimentation, or measurement.

scientific method

a systematic approach used to study human behavior and mental processes.

hypothesis

a specific, testable prediction or educated guess about the relationship between variables or the outcome of a research study.

falsifiable hypothesis

a statement that can be tested and potentially proven false through observation or experimentation.

peer review

a process where research articles and studies are evaluated by experts in the field before they are published in academic journals.

replication

the process of repeating or reproducing a research study to determine if its findings can be consistently observed.

APA

a leading professional organization dedicated to advancing the field of psychology and promoting the application of psychological knowledge to improve human welfare.

quantitative data

numbers-based information gathered from surveys, tests, or experiments.

qualitative data

Information collected through methods like interviews or observations, focusing on people's experiences and behaviors.

likert scales

a measurement tool used in surveys and questionnaires to assess people's attitudes, opinions, or perceptions.

structured interviews

research method in which predetermined questions are asked to all participants in the same order.

survey technique

research method in psychology used to collect data from a sample of individuals through self-report measures.

wording effect

 subtle changes in the phrasing or wording of survey questions can influence respondents' interpretations and responses.

Social Desirability Bias

refers to the tendency of individuals to respond in a manner that is viewed favorably by others or conforms to social norms, rather than providing honest or accurate answers.

naturalistic observation

research method in psychology where researchers observe and record behavior in real-world settings without intervention or manipulation. ring finger or N

case study

research method in psychology that involves an in-depth examination of a single individual, group, or phenomenon. middle finger or C

Correlational Research

scientific method used in psychology to allow psychologists to identify patterns and make predictions, but does not establish causation between variables.

third variable problem

the possibility that a third, unmeasured variable may be influencing the relationship between the two variables of interest.

scatterplot

a visual representation used in correlational research to display the relationship between two variables.

• allows researchers to visually assess the strength and direction of the correlation between the variables and identify any outliers or unusual patterns in the data.

correlation coefficient

The closer the correlation coefficient is to +1 or -1, the stronger the relationship between the variables.  A correlation coefficient of 0 indicates no relationship between the variables.

positive correlation

+1

negative correlation

-1

experimental method

 a research technique used to investigate cause-and-effect relationships between variables. thumb or E

independent variable

the variable that the researcher deliberately changes or manipulates in an experiment.

dependent variable

the variable that is observed and measured for changes in an experiment.

confounding variable

it's a variable that wasn't accounted for or controlled in the study but still affects the results.

operational definitions

specifies how a researcher will measure and manipulate variables in a study.

experimental group

 the participants in the __________ are indeed exposed to the independent variable, which is the variable manipulated by the researcher to observe its effect on the dependent variable.

control group

 is a group of participants who were not exposed to the independent variable, providing a baseline for comparison with the experimental group.

random assignment

 research method used to assign participants to different groups in an experiment randomly.

placebo effect

the phenomenon where individuals experience improvement in their condition solely because they believe they are receiving a beneficial treatment, rather than due to any active ingredient or physiological mechanism in the placebo itself

experimenter bias

 the researcher's expectations or beliefs about the outcome of a study influence the results.

single blind study

research design where participants are unaware of whether they belong to the experimental or control group, but the researchers conducting the study are aware of this information.

double blind study

research design where both the participants and the researchers conducting the study are unaware of who belongs to the experimental or control group.

placebo condition

administering the placebo to one group of participants while the other group receives the actual treatment being tested.

sample

refers to a subset of individuals or cases selected from a larger population for study.

representative sample

a subset of individuals selected from a larger population in such a way that it accurately reflects the demographics, characteristics, and diversity of that population.

random sample

 ensures that each participant in the study has an equal opportunity to be included, which helps to minimize the influence of researcher bias and increase the generalizability of the findings to the population as a whole.

sample bias

This bias occurs when the sample is not representative of the larger population, leading to inaccurate or misleading results.

generalizability

the extent to which research findings obtained from a sample can be applied or generalized to a larger population.

statistics

A large amount of data can be collected in research studies. Psychologists need to make sense of the data.

Descriptive statistics

refer to numerical measures used to summarize and describe the characteristics of a dataset.

inferential statistics

involves using data from a sample to make inferences or predictions about a larger population.

measures of central tendency

statistical tools used to describe the central or average value of a set of data. (mean, median, mode, range)

normal/bell curve

 the majority of the data falls near the center, or mean, of the distribution, with progressively fewer values occurring further away from the mean in both directions.

Regression to the Mean

is when extreme scores tend to get closer to the average when measured again. This happens because extreme scores are often due to temporary factors, not lasting characteristics.

positive skew

 the majority of the data clusters on the left side, with the tail extending towards the right, suggesting the presence of outliers or unusually high values. a tail that goes to right

negative skew

the bulk of the data clusters on the right side, with the tail extending towards the left, suggesting the presence of outliers or exceptionally low values. a tail that goes to left

standard deviation

a way to measure how spread out or close together numbers are in a group.

percentile rank

a statistical measure that indicates the percentage of scores in a distribution that are equal to or below a particular value.

bimodal distribution

type of data distribution in which there are two distinct peaks or high points on a histogram or frequency distribution graph.

statistical significance

the likelihood that observed results in a research study are not due to chance.

• the p-value

effect size

• A large ______ indicates a substantial difference or relationship, suggesting that the independent variable has a considerable impact on the dependent variable

• A small ______ indicates a minimal difference or relationship, indicating that the independent variable has a limited effect on the dependent variable.

meta analysis

the statistical analysis of multiple research studies on the same topic to draw overall conclusions.

• It combines data from various studies to increase the overall sample size and statistical power.

Institutional Review Boards (IRBs)

committees responsible for reviewing and approving research proposals to ensure that they meet ethical standards and protect the rights and welfare of research participants.

protect participants from harm

emphasizes the obligation of researchers to minimize risks and ensure the well-being of research participants throughout the study process.

informed consent

the process through which individuals voluntarily agree to participate in a research study after being provided with comprehensive information about the study's purpose, procedures, risks, benefits, and their rights as participants. (over 18)

informed assent

similar to informed consent but specifically applies to research involving children or individuals who may have limited decision-making capacity, such as those with cognitive impairments or developmental disabilities. (under 18)

confidentiality

 It requires researchers to handle sensitive data and personal information obtained during the study with the utmost discretion and confidentiality.

deception

involves misleading participants about the true purpose or nature of the study, the procedures involved, or the expected outcomes. It must be used sparingly and justified by compelling scientific or ethical reasons.

confederates

individuals who are part of a research study but are actually working in collaboration with the researcher and are aware of the true purpose of the study.

debriefing

 providing participants with comprehensive information about the true nature, purpose, and procedures of a research study immediately after their participation. Allows participants to reflect on their experience, ask questions, and provide feedback to researchers.