Unit One: Scientific Foundations of Psychology

Empirical thinking

research based on observing and experimenting

critical thinking

the objective analysis and evaluation of an issue in order to form a judgment.

Structuralism

early school of thought promoted by Titchener; used introspection to reveal the structure of the human mind

Functionalism

early school of thought promoted by James and influenced by Darwin; explored how mental and behavioral processes function- how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish

Behavorism

the science of behavior that focuses on observable behavior only, by John B Watson and B. F Skinner

humanistic psychology

the study of mental processes, focused on ways that current environments nurture or limit growth potential

Cognitive Pschology

how info is perceived, processed, and remembered

cognitive neuroscience

A field that attempts to understand the links between cognitive processes and brain activity.

Psychology

the scientific study of behavior and mental processes

nature-nurture issue

the long-standing controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors

natural selection

A natural process resulting in the evolution of organisms best adapted to the environment

evolutionary psychology

focuses on how humans are alike because of common biology and evolutionary history

behavior genetics

focuses on differences related to differing genes/environments

Culture

Beliefs, customs, and traditions of a specific group of people.

positive psychology

the scientific study of human functioning, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive

levels of analysis

the differing complementary views for analyzing any given phenomenon

biopsychosocial approach

an approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis

basic research

pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base

applied research

scientific study that aims to solve practical problems

counseling psychology

a branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well-being

psychiatry

a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who sometimes provide medical (for example, drug) treatments as well as psychological therapy

community psychology

a branch of psychology that studies how people interact with their social environments and how social institutions affect individuals and groups

testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information

SQ3R

a study method incorporating five steps: Survey, Question, Read, Retrieve, Review

Aristotle

A Greek Philosopher who used observation and questioning to understand the body-psyche relationship- 'content of the mind comes through senses'

Plato

'character and intelligence inherited.'

Socrates

greek philopsher who believed knowledge was innate

Francis Bacon

British researcher who emphasized observation and experimentation

Rene Descartes

French philosopher; some ideas are intuitive

Charles Darwin

English natural scientist who formulated a theory of evolution by natural selection

Wilhem Wundt

Created the first school of psychology in Germany (1879)

Edward Titchener

Student of Wilhelm Wundt; founder of Structuralist school of psychology.

G. Stanley Hall

american psychologist who established the first psychology research laboratory in the United States and founded the American Psychological Association

Mary Whiton Calkins

American psychologist who conducted research on memory, personality, and dreams; first woman president of the American Psychological Association

Margaret Floy Washburn

First female to be awarded a PhD in psychology; 2nd president of the APA

Sigmund Freud

Austrian physician whose work focused on the unconscious causes of behavior and personality formation; founded psychoanalysis.

William James

founder of functionalism; studied how humans use perception to function in our environment

Ivan Pavlov

discovered classical conditioning; trained dogs to salivate at the ringing of a bell

John Locke

'mind is a blank slate'

B.F. Skinner

Behaviorist that developed the theory of operant conditioning by training pigeons and rats

Abraham Maslow

Humanistic psychologist known for his "Hierarchy of Needs" and the concept of "self-actualization"

Carl Rogers

Field: humanistic; Contributions: founded person-centered therapy, theory that emphasizes the unique quality of humans especially their freedom and potential for personal growth, unconditional positive regard, fully functioning person

American Psychological Association (APA)

professional organization representing psychologists in the United States

hindsight bias

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it- 'i knew it all along'

Theory

explains behaviors/events by offering ideas that organize observations, and summarizes/simplifies

Hypothesis

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory

operational definition

a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures used in a research study

Replication

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances

case study

a descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

naturalist observation

observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

survey

a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group

random sample

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

Population

all those in a group being studied from which results may be drawn

Correalation

a mutual relationship or connection between two or more things

correlation coefficient

a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1)

Variable

anything that can vary and is feasible and ethical to measure

Scatterplot

a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables, the slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables

illusory correlation

perception of a relationship where none exists, or perception of a stronger relationship than actually exists

regression toward the mean

the tendency for extremes of unusual scores to fall back (regress) toward their average

experimental group

In an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.

control group

the group that does not receive the experimental treatment.

random assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups

double-blind procedure

A research strategy in which neither subjects nor experimenters know which subjects are in the experimental or control groups.

Placebo

something which has a positive mental effect, but no physical effect

independent variable

variable that is manipulated

dependent variable

the outcome that is measured; the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated

cofounding variable

a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment

demand characteristics

cues in an experiment that tell the participant what behavior is expected

Single-blind procedure

research design in which participants don't know whether they are in the experimental or control group

informed consent

An ethical principle requiring that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate.

Debriefing

the post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants

Ethical Guidelines

suggested rules for acting responsibly and morally when conducting research or in clinical practice

Protection from harm

the right of research participants to be protected from physical or psychological harm

Confidentiality

the act of holding information in confidence, not to be released to unauthorized individuals

descriptive statistics

brief informational coefficients that summarize a given data set

inferential statistics

procedures used to draw conclusions about larger populations from small samples of data

Mode

The value that occurs most frequently in a given data set.

mean

the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores

Median

the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it

range

the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution

standard deviation

a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score

normal curve (normal distribution)

a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (about 68 percent fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer near the extremes.

statistical significance(p-value)

how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance

frequency distribution

an arrangement of data that indicates how often a particular score or observation occurs