Studied by 18 people
memory
the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information
recall
a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test
recognition
a measure of memory in which the person identifies items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test
relearning
a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again
encoding
the process of getting information into the memory system—for example, by extracting meaning.
storage
the process of retaining encoded information over time
retrieval
the process of getting information out of memory storage
parallel processing
the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions
sensory memory
the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system
short-term memory
activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten
long-term memory
the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.
working memory
a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory
explicit memory
retention of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare"
effortful processing
encoding that requires attention and conscious effort
automatic processing
unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings
implicit memory
retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection
iconic memory
a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second
echoic memory
a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds
chunking
organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically
mnemonics
memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices
spacing effect
the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice
testing effect
enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information
shallow processing
encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words
deep processing
encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention
semantic memory
explicit memory of facts and general knowledge; one of our two conscious memory systems
episodic memory
explicit memory of personally experienced events; one of our two conscious memory systems
hippocampus
a neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit (conscious) memories- of facts and events- for storage
memory consolidation
the neural storage of a long-term memory
flashbulb memory
a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event
long-term potentiation (LTP)
an increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation; a neural basis for learning and memory.
priming
the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response
enconding specificity principle
the idea that cues and contexts specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping us recall it
mood-congruent memory
the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood
serial position effect
our tendency to recall best the last (a recency effect) and first items (a primacy effect) in a list
anterograde amnesia
an inability to form new memories
retrograde amnesia
an inability to retrieve information from one's past
proactive interference
the forward-acting disruptive effect of older learning on the recall of new information
retroactive interference
the backward-acting disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information
repression
in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories
reconsolidation
a process in which previously stored memories, when retrieved, are potentially altered before being stored again
misinformation effect
occurs when misleading information has corrupted one's memory of an event
source amnesia
faulty memory for how, when, or where information was learned or imagined
deja vu
that eerie sense that "I've experienced this before." Cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience.
scientific method
a self-correcting process for asking questions and observing nature's answers
theory
an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events
hypothesis
a testable prediction, often implied by a theory
operational definition
a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures used in a research study
replication
repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances
case study
a descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles
naturalistic observation
a descriptive technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation
survey
a descriptive technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group
random sample
a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion
population
all those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn
correlation
a measure of the extent to which two variables change together, and thus of how well either variable predicts the other
correlation coefficient
a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1)
variable
anything that can vary and is feasible and ethical to measure
scatterplot
a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables
illusory correlation
perceiving a relationship where none exists, or perceiving a stronger-than-actual relationship
regression toward the mean
the tendency for extreme or unusual scores to fall back (regress) toward their average.
experiment
a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process
experimental group
In an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.
control group
in an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment
random assignment
assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups
double-blind procedure
an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies.
placebo effect
experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent.
independent variable
in an experiment, the factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied
confounding variable
a factor other than the factor being studied that might influence a study's results
dependent variable
in an experiment, the outcome that is measured; the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated
informed consent
giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate
debriefing
the postexperimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants
biological psychology
the scientific study of the links between biological and psychological processes
plasticity
the brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience
neuron
a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system
cell body
the part of a neuron that contains the nucleus; the cell's life-support center
dendrites
a neuron's bushy, branching extensions that receive and integrate messages, conducting impulses toward the cell body
axon
the neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands
myelin sheath
a fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one node to the next
glial cells
cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons; also play a role in learning, thinking, and memory
action potential
a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon
threshold
the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse
refractory period
in neural processing, a brief resting pause that occurs after a neuron has fired; subsequent action potentials cannot occur until the axon returns to its resting state
all-or-none response
a neuron's reaction of either firing (with a full-strength response) or not firing.
synapse
the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron
neurotransmitters
chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons
reuptake
a neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron
endorphins
"morphine within"--natural, opiatelike neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure.
agonist
a molecule that increases a neurotransmitter's action
antagonist
a molecule that, by binding to a receptor site, inhibits or blocks a response
nervous system
the body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems
central nervous system (CNS)
the brain and spinal cord
peripheral nervous system
the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body
nerves
bundled axons that form neural "cables" connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs
sensory neurons
neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord
motor neurons
neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands
interneurons
neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs
somatic nervous system
the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles
autonomic nervous system
the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms.
sympathetic nervous system
the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations
parasympathetic nervous system
the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy
spinal cord
two-way information highway connecting the peripheral nervous system and the brain
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