AP Psychology Sem 1 Cumulative Key Terms

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316 Terms

1

memory

the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information

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2

recall

a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test

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3

recognition

a measure of memory in which the person identifies items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test

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4

relearning

a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again

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5

encoding

the process of getting information into the memory system—for example, by extracting meaning.

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6

storage

the process of retaining encoded information over time

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7

retrieval

the process of getting information out of memory storage

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8

parallel processing

the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions

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9

sensory memory

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

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10

short-term memory

activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten

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11

long-term memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.

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12

working memory

a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory

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13

explicit memory

retention of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare"

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14

effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

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15

automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings

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16

implicit memory

retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection

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17

iconic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

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18

echoic memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds

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19

chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically

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20

mnemonics

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

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21

spacing effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice

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22

testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information

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23

shallow processing

encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words

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24

deep processing

encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention

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25

semantic memory

explicit memory of facts and general knowledge; one of our two conscious memory systems

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26

episodic memory

explicit memory of personally experienced events; one of our two conscious memory systems

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27

hippocampus

a neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit (conscious) memories- of facts and events- for storage

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28

memory consolidation

the neural storage of a long-term memory

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29

flashbulb memory

a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event

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30

long-term potentiation (LTP)

an increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation; a neural basis for learning and memory.

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31

priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response

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32

enconding specificity principle

the idea that cues and contexts specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping us recall it

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33

mood-congruent memory

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood

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34

serial position effect

our tendency to recall best the last (a recency effect) and first items (a primacy effect) in a list

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35

anterograde amnesia

an inability to form new memories

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36

retrograde amnesia

an inability to retrieve information from one's past

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37

proactive interference

the forward-acting disruptive effect of older learning on the recall of new information

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38

retroactive interference

the backward-acting disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information

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39

repression

in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories

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40

reconsolidation

a process in which previously stored memories, when retrieved, are potentially altered before being stored again

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41

misinformation effect

occurs when misleading information has corrupted one's memory of an event

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42

source amnesia

faulty memory for how, when, or where information was learned or imagined

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43

deja vu

that eerie sense that "I've experienced this before." Cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience.

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44

scientific method

a self-correcting process for asking questions and observing nature's answers

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45

theory

an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events

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46

hypothesis

a testable prediction, often implied by a theory

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47

operational definition

a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures used in a research study

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48

replication

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances

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49

case study

a descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

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50

naturalistic observation

a descriptive technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

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51

survey

a descriptive technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group

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52

random sample

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

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53

population

all those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn

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54

correlation

a measure of the extent to which two variables change together, and thus of how well either variable predicts the other

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55

correlation coefficient

a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1)

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56

variable

anything that can vary and is feasible and ethical to measure

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57

scatterplot

a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables

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58

illusory correlation

perceiving a relationship where none exists, or perceiving a stronger-than-actual relationship

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59

regression toward the mean

the tendency for extreme or unusual scores to fall back (regress) toward their average.

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60

experiment

a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process

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61

experimental group

In an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.

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62

control group

in an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment

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63

random assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups

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64

double-blind procedure

an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies.

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65

placebo effect

experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent.

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66

independent variable

in an experiment, the factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied

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67

confounding variable

a factor other than the factor being studied that might influence a study's results

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68

dependent variable

in an experiment, the outcome that is measured; the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated

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69

informed consent

giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate

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70

debriefing

the postexperimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants

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71

biological psychology

the scientific study of the links between biological and psychological processes

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72

plasticity

the brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience

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73

neuron

a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system

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74

cell body

the part of a neuron that contains the nucleus; the cell's life-support center

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75

dendrites

a neuron's bushy, branching extensions that receive and integrate messages, conducting impulses toward the cell body

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76

axon

the neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands

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77

myelin sheath

a fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one node to the next

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78

glial cells

cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons; also play a role in learning, thinking, and memory

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79

action potential

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon

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80

threshold

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

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81

refractory period

in neural processing, a brief resting pause that occurs after a neuron has fired; subsequent action potentials cannot occur until the axon returns to its resting state

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82

all-or-none response

a neuron's reaction of either firing (with a full-strength response) or not firing.

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83

synapse

the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron

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84

neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons

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85

reuptake

a neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron

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86

endorphins

"morphine within"--natural, opiatelike neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure.

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87

agonist

a molecule that increases a neurotransmitter's action

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88

antagonist

a molecule that, by binding to a receptor site, inhibits or blocks a response

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89

nervous system

the body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems

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90

central nervous system (CNS)

the brain and spinal cord

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91

peripheral nervous system

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body

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92

nerves

bundled axons that form neural "cables" connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs

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93

sensory neurons

neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord

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94

motor neurons

neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands

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95

interneurons

neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs

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96

somatic nervous system

the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles

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97

autonomic nervous system

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms.

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98

sympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations

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99

parasympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy

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spinal cord

two-way information highway connecting the peripheral nervous system and the brain

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