psych unit learning

AP Psychology-Unit: Learning

Learning

The process of acquiring new information through experience; new and relatively enduring information or behaviors.

Associative learning

Learning that certain events occur together; linking two stimuli or a response and consequence to reinforce learning.

Classical conditioning

Type of learning in which we link two or more stimuli; involves a neutral stimulus elicits a behavior in anticipation of an unconditioned stimulus.

Behaviorism

View that psychology should be an objective science that studies behavior without reference to mental processes.

Unconditioned response (UR)

An unlearned, naturally occurring response to an unconditioned stimulus.

Unconditioned stimulus (US)

A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers an unconditioned response.

Conditioned response (CR)

A learned response to a previously neutral stimulus.

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

An originally neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, triggers a conditioned response.

Acquisition

The initial stage of learning something; refers to linking a neutral stimulus to trigger a conditioned response.

Extinction

The gradual weakening and disappearance of a conditioned response.

Spontaneous recovery

The reappearance of an extinguished response after a period of non-exposure to the conditioned stimulus.

Generalization

The tendency to respond in the same way to different but similar stimuli.

Discrimination

The ability to perceive and respond to differences among stimuli.

Operant conditioning

Learning in which organisms associate their own actions with consequences.

Respondent behavior

Behavior that is dependent upon a specific stimulus and elicited by that stimulus. automatic and involuntary

Operant behavior

Behavior that is controlled by its consequences.

Law of effect

Principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences are more likely to be strengthened.

Operant chamber (Skinner box)

A box designed for animals that releases a reward for completing a series of tasks.

Shaping

the process of training a learned behavior that would not normally occur. For each action closer to the desired outcome, a reinforcement or reward is provided until the target behavior is achieved.

Reinforcer

Something that increases the likelihood of a specific behavior or response occurring.

Positive reinforcement

Presenting a pleasurable stimulus after a response.

Negative reinforcement

Removing something negative after a response.

Primary reinforcers

Reinforcers that have innate reinforcing qualities; not learned.

Conditioned reinforcers

Stimuli that become effective reinforcers through their association with primary reinforcers.

Continuous reinforcement

Reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs.

Partial (intermittent) reinforcement

Reinforcing a response only part of the time.

Fixed-ratio schedule

Reinforcement after a specified number of responses.

Variable-ratio schedule

Reinforcement based on a changing number of responses.

Fixed-interval schedule

Reinforcement rewarded only after a specified amount of time has elapsed.

Variable-interval schedule

Reinforcement rewarded after an unpredictable amount of time has passed.

Punishment

An event that decreases the likelihood of the behavior that follows it.

Cognitive map

A mental representation of the spatial environment used to guide future actions.

Latent learning

Learning that is not immediately expressed in an overt response.

Intrinsic motivation

The motivation to perform an activity for its inherent satisfaction.

Extrinsic motivation

The motivation to participate based on external goals or rewards.

Observational learning

Learning by watching the behaviors of others.

Modeling

the process through which children learn a large number of behaviors, skills and, ways of thinking and feeling without direct experience.

Mirror neurons

Neurons that enable us to imitate and understand the actions of others.

Prosocial behavior

Actions intended to help others, characterized by concern for their rights and welfare.

One trial conditioning

Learning that occurs in a single pairing of response and stimulus.

Biological preparedness

The inclination to form associations between specific stimuli and responses.

One-trial learning

A method where learning occurs from a single exposure to a stimulus.

Reinforcement discrimination

A stimulus that increases response probability based on a history of reinforcement.

Reinforcement generalization

The tendency to respond similarly to different but similar stimuli.

Superstitious behavior

The belief that specific actions can influence unrelated events.

Scalloped graph

A graph showing an increase in response rate as reinforcement time approaches.

Apparent movement

An optical illusion where stationary objects appear to be in motion.

Gambler's fallacy

The mistaken belief that past outcomes affect the likelihood of future events.

Sunk-cost fallacy

Reluctance to abandon a strategy due to previous investments.

Imagination inflation

Increased tendency to falsely remember actions based on imagination.

Fixed mindset

The belief that abilities are innate and unchangeable.

Growth mindset

The belief that abilities can be improved through effort and learning.