psych unit learning

Learning - process of acquiring new information through experience new and relatively enduring information or behaviors

Associative learning - learning that certain events occur together; anytime two stimuli are linked together to reinforce learning; could be 2 stimuli (classical conditioning) or response and consequence (operant conditioning) 

Classical learning - type of learning in which we link two or more stimuli; Pavlov’s classic experiment w/ first stimuli (tone) comes to elicit behavior (drooling) in anticipation of second stimulus (food) 

Behaviorism - view of that psychology should be an objective science that studies behavior w out reference to mental processes 

Unconditioned response (UR) - unlearned, naturally occurring response (ex. salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (ex. Food in mouth) (classical conditioning)

Unconditioned stimulus (US) - stimulus that unconditionally–naturally & automatically– triggers an unconditioned response (classical conditioning) 

Conditioned response (CR) - learned response or reaction to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (classical conditioning)

Conditioned stimulus (CS) - originally neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response (classical conditioning) 

Acquisition - initial stage of learning something; dependent on stimulus contiguity; classical → when one links a neutral stimulus so that it begins triggering a conditioned response

operant → strengthening of a reinforced response

Extinction - the gradual weakening and disappearance of a conditioned response tendency

Spontaneous recovery - the reappearance of an extinguished response after a period of non exposure to the conditioned stimulus

Generalization - the tendency to respond in the same way to different but similar stimuli.

Discrimination the ability to perceive and respond to differences among stimuli. 

Operant conditioning - organisms associate their own actions with consequences

Respondent behavior - behavior that appears to e clearly dependent upon a specific stimulus and elicited by that stimulus

Operant behavior is behavior “controlled” by its consequences.

Law of effect - Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences are more likely or strengthened, and behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

Operant chamber (Skinner box) - a box of obstacles for animals that once completed in the correct order, releases a reward for food or water

Shaping - rewarding closer and closer approximations to the behavior

Reinforcer - something that increases the likelihood that a specific behavior or response will occur. 

Positive reinforcement - presenting a pleasurable stimulus after a response

Negative reinforcement - removing something negative after a response

Primary reinforcers reinforcers that have innate reinforcing qualities. These kinds of reinforcers are not learned.

Conditioned reinforcers a stimulus that becomes an effective reinforcer because of its association with a primary, or unconditioned, reinforcer.

Continuous reinforcement - reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs

Partial (intermittent) reinforcement - reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement

Fixed-ratio-schedule - in operant conditioning, a specified number of responses; (set/unchanging numbers); w/ most recognizable data at a high steady rate w/ brief pause after delivery

Variable-ratio-schedule - in operant conditioning, a changing/unpredictable number of responses; high steady rate of responding; Ex. gambling & lottery games

Fixed-interval-schedule - the response is rewarded only after a specified amount of time has elapsed

Variable-interval-schedule - occurs when a response is rewarded after an unpredictable amount of time has passed

Punishment - event that tends to stop or decrease behavior that follows it 6

Cognitive map brain builds a unified representation of the spatial environment to support memory and guide future action.

Latent learning - a form of learning that is not immediately expressed in an overt response

Intrinsic motivation the doing of an activity for its inherent satisfaction rather than for some separable consequence.

Extrinsic motivation a motivation to participate in an activity based on meeting an external goal, garnering praise and approval, winning a competition, or receiving an award or payment.

Observational learning the process of learning by watching the behaviors of others.

Modeling the process through which children learn a large number of behaviors, skills and, ways of thinking and feeling without direct experience.  

Mirror neurons facilitate our learning by enabling us to imitate and understand the actions and behavior of those we observe. 

Prosocial behavior - those intended to help other people. These actions are characterized by a concern for the rights, feelings, and welfare of other people. 

One trial conditioning learning takes place in a single pairing of a response and stimulus and is not strengthened over time by repeated exposure to a stimulus.

Biological preparedness  - the idea that people and animals are inherently inclined to form associations between certain stimuli and responses.

One-trial learning  a method where an individual grasps something from a single exposure to the stimulus or information, eliminating the need for multiple repetitions.

Reinforcement discrimination in operant conditioning, a stimulus that increases the probability of a response because of a previous history of differential reinforcement in the presence of that stimulus.

Reinforcement generalization the tendency to respond in the same way to different but similar stimuli. 

Superstitious behavior the irrational belief that a specific action or behavior can influence unrelated events.

Scalloped graph  occurs when responses start slowly but then increase in speed as the time that reinforcement is used near

Apparent Movement an optical illusion in which stationary objects viewed in quick succession or in relation to moving objects appear to be in motion.

Gambler's Fallacy a failure to recognize the independence of chance events, leading to the mistaken belief that one can predict the outcome of a chance event on the basis of the outcomes of past chance events.

Sunk-Cost Fallacy the phenomenon whereby a person is reluctant to abandon a strategy or course of action because they have invested heavily in it, even when it is clear that abandonment would be more beneficial.

Imagination Inflation an increased tendency to falsely remember that an item has been seen, or an action has been performed, when it has only been imagined.

Fixed Mindset  the belief that abilities are innate and unchangeable.

Growth Mindset believes that a person's abilities aren't innate but can be improved through effort, learning, and persistence.