AP Psychology Unit 2A Vocab

Module 2.3 - Introduction to Memory

Memory

the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information.

super recognizers

individuals who display an extraordinary face-recognition ability (can help with solving crime cases); this phenomena can also be seen in sheep and a specific fish species

Recall

a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.

retrieving information that is not currently in your conscious awareness but that was learned at an earlier time. A fill-in-the-blank question tests your recall.

recognition

a measure of memory in which the person identifies items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test.

identifying items previously learned. A multiple-choice question tests your recognition.

relearning

a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again.

learning something more quickly when you learn it a second or later time. When you review the first weeks of course work to prepare for your final exam, or speak a language used in early childhood, it will be easier to relearn the material than it was to learn it initially.

encoding

the process of getting information into the memory system — for example, by extracting meaning. (get information into our brain)

storage

the process of retaining encoded information over time. (retain the information)

retrieve

the process of getting information out of memory storage. (later get the information back out of our brain)

parallel processing

processing multiple aspects of a stimulus or problem simultaneously.

connectionism

one information-processing model used to help focus in parallel processing, views memories as products of interconnected neural networks

multi-store model

1. We first record to-be-remembered information as a fleeting sensory memory.

2. From there, we process information into short-term memory, where we encode it through rehearsal.

3. Finally, information moves into long-term memory for later retrieval.

sensory memory

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system.

short-term memory

briefly activated memory of a few items (such as digits of a phone number while calling) that is later stored or forgotten.

long-term memory

the relatively permanent and limitless archive of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.

working memory

a newer understanding of short-term memory; conscious, active processing of both (1) incoming sensory information, and (2) information retrieved from long-term memory.

the brain's temporary mental scratchpad for holding and manipulating a small amount of information for immediate use, enabling tasks like problem-solving, learning, and following conversations.can be overloaded, and new information can be forgotten

maintenance rehearsal 

prolongs memory storage through rehearsal of information over time

elaborative rehearsal

rehearsing information in ways that promote meaning

central executive

a memory component that coordinates the activities of the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad.

phonological loop

a memory component that briefly holds auditory information.

visuospatial sketchpad

a memory component that briefly holds information about objects’ appearance and location in space.

neurogenesis

the formation of new neurons

long-term potentiation (LTP)

an increase in a nerve cell’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation; a neural basis for learning and memory.

refers to a long-lasting increase in a nerve cell’s firing power

potentiate

To potentiate something is to increase its power or likelihood

electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)

a medical treatment that involves administering a brief electrical current to the brain to induce a seizure.

Used to treat severe mental health conditions, such as major depression and mania, when other treatments, such as medication and therapy, have not been effective.

mild cognitive impairment

a condition where a person experiences mild but noticeable changes in their cognitive abilities, such as memory, attention, and language, that are beyond what is typically expected for their age

(typical treatment group for memory-boosting drugs)

memory-blocking drugs

a theoretical concept of drugs that could blunt intrusive memories when they

re taken after a traumatic experiences.

Module 2.4 - Encoding Memories

explicit memory

retention of facts and experiences that we can consciously know and “declare.” (Also called declarative memory.)

implicit memory

retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection. (Also called nondeclarative memory.)

effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort.

automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of familiar or well-learned information, such as sounds, smells, and word meanings.

iconic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second.

echoic memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds.

chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically.

peg-word system

mnemonic device that uses pre-memorized "peg" words, associated with numbers, to remember a list of items by creating vivid, interactive mental images between the peg words and the list items. (harnesses visual-imagery skill)

method of loci

mnemonic technique that involves mentally placing items to be remembered in specific locations along a familiar route or within a familiar environment, such as one's house

spacing effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice.

Massed practice (cramming)

Produces speedy short-term learning and an inflated feeling of confidence. Those who learn quickly, also forget quickly. 

Distributed practice

produces a better long-term recall. (once you’ve mastered the material, only need short review sessions to maintain retention)

testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information. Also referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning.

shallow processing 

encoding on a basic level, based on the structure or appearance of words. on an elementary level, a word’s letters (structural encoding) or, at a more intermediate level, a word’s sound (phonetic encoding) (our ability to differentiate write vs right)

deep processing

encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention (the more meaningful the processing, the better our retention)

Module 2.5 - Storing Memories

semantic memory

explicit memory of facts and general knowledge; one of our two conscious memory systems; helps connect concepts, and group objects

episodic memory

explicit memory of personally experienced events; one of our two conscious memory systems

schemas

the frameworks we’ve learned to use in understanding the world, also can affect memory processing. (more likely to store new explicit memories if they fit within existing schemas)

hippocampus

a neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit (conscious) memories — of facts and events — for storage. (complex, with subregions that serve different functions)

memory consolidation

the neural storage of a long-term memory. (moved out of the hippocampus into the cortex for storage)

basal ganglia

deep brain structures involved in motor movement and facilitate formation ofour procedural memories for skills

infantile amnesia

inability to remember conscious memories of our first four years (explicit memory must be indexed with language that young children do not posses, and the hippocampus is one of the last structures to mature - thus more memories are retained as it matures)

memory trace

a lasting physical change as the memory forms

flashbulb memories

a clear memory (snapshot) of an emotionally significant moment or event.

Module 2.6 - Retrieving Memories

retrieval cues

associating bits of information with a targeted piece of information to help with retrieving the information from your memory (like passwords that open memories)

retrospective memory

memories from our past

prospective memory

intended future actions

priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one’s perception, memory, or response. implicit, invisible memory, without your conscious awareness (memoryless memory)

encoding specificity principle

the idea that cues and contexts specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping us recall it.

mood-congruent memory

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad mood.

serial position effect

our tendency to recall best the last items in a list initially (a recency effect) and the first items in a list after a delay (a primacy effect).

metacognition

cognition about our cognition; keeping track of and evaluating our mental processes.

interleaving

a retrieval practice strategy that involves mixing the study of different topics. boosts long-term retention, protects against overconfidence, allows extra retrieval practice

Module 2.7 - Forgetting and Other Memory Challenges

higher superior autobiographical memory

super memory, one memory cuing another that never stops, basically the inability to forget things and constant retrieval of memories

anterograde amnesia

an inability to form new memories, can still remember the past

retrograde amnesia

an inability to remember information from one’s past, any memories stored in long-term memory

proactive interference

the forward-acting disruptive effect of older learning on the recall of new information. (prior learning disrupts your recall of new information)

retroactive interference

the backward-acting disruptive effect of newer learning on the recall of old information. (new learning disrupts your recall of old information) 

positive transfer

previously learned information often facilitates our learning of new information

repression

in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories. (to protect the ego, can be retrieved by cue or therapy according to Freud, central to his psychodynamic and psychoanalytic theories)

constructive memory

psychological concept that memory is not a literal recording but a reconstruction that combines pieces of actual events with our current knowledge, beliefs, and experiences. (can lead to errors, distortions, or gaps in memories)

reconsolidation

a process in which previously stores memories when retrieved, are potentially altered before being stored again

misinformation effect

occurs when a memory has been corrupted by misleading information.

imagination inflation

the phenomenon where individuals become more confident that an event happened after repeatedly imagining the details of it. act of imagining can make an event seem more familiar and real, potentially leading to confusion between what was actually experienced and what was only imagined

source amnesia

faulty memory for how, when, or where information was learned or imagined (as when misattributing information to a wrong source). Source amnesia, along with the misinformation effect, is at the heart of many false memories.

déjà vu

“already seen” in French, that eerie sense that “I’ve experienced this before.” Cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience.

Methods to Improve Memory (2.7-4)

Rehearse Repeatedly

Use spacing effect and distributed practice. Engage in seperate study sessions. Exercise new, weak memories to make the stronger. Retrieve items 3 times before you stop studying it. Testing effects says to study actively (saying, writing, or typing > reading) Production effect explains why teaching information helps us retain it better.

Make the material meaningful

Personalize it, use your own retrieval cues via associations. Apply concepts to your own life, understand it and organize it, relate to the materials. Don’t memorize, seeing different wording on a test may throw you off.

Activate Retrieval Cues

Context-dependent and state-dependent memory. Mentally re-create the situation and mood to jog your memory by following the cues.

Use Mnemonic Devices

Make up a story with vivid images, Chunk information, memorable mnemonic

Minimize proactive and retroactive interference

Study before sleep, do not schedule back-to-back study sessions for topics that are likely to interfere with each other

Sleep more

The brain reorganizes and consolidates information for long-term memory during sleep. Sleep will help you remember what you’ve learned and what you’re planning to do. 

Test you own knowledge, both to rehearse it and to find out what you don’t know

Buy into the testing effects, don’t be overconfident. Test recall, not recognition. Outline, define, answer MCQs, answer FRQs.