AP Psychology: Cognition

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Information Processing Model

George Miller, a framework used by cognitive psychologists to explain and describe the processes of the human brain. According to these models, our brain receives, interprets, and uses information in stages corresponding to different steps in the information processing system.

Sensory Memory

stores the stimulus registered by the senses/ a mental representation of how environmental events look, sound, feel, smell and taste.Our brains get so much info – it needs a chance to sort important from not. We lose the information UNLESS we do something further with it.

Echoic Memory

Ultra short term memory for the things you hear/ Sensory memory for auditory input that lasts only 2 to 3 seconds

Iconic Memory

Visual memry, last about 0.3 seconds

Short term memory

Memories that generally include quick observations, and are only stored up to 30 seconds. Maintaining items in a short- term store and transferring information about the items to a more permanent long-term store is due through rehearsals (ensayos).

The Magic Number

7 +/- indicates that te average of adult remember 5 to 9 things in their short term memory

Maintain Rehersal

process in which information is repeated or reviewed in order to memorize it, whilr still in short time memory.

Chunk (STM)

the process by which the mind divides large pieces of information into smaller units (chunks) that are easier to retain in short-term memory

Long term memory

relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences

Explicit memory

(declarative)
refers to the conscious recollection of a previous episode, as in recall or recognition.

Episodic memory

refers to the conscious recollection of a personal experience that contains information on what has happened and also where and when it happened

Semantic memory

refers to our general world knowledge that encompasses memory for concepts, facts, and the meanings of words and other symbolic units that constitute formal communication systems such as language or math.

Implicit memory

(non-declarative)
is a form of long-term memory that doesn't require any conscious retrieval.

Priming

pre exposure to a stimulus effects your reaction to a later stimulus.

Procedual Memory

e involves “knowing how” to do things. It included skills, such as “knowing how” to playing the piano, ride a bike; tie your shoes and other motor skills

Classical Conditioning

two stimuli are linked together to produce a new learned response in a person or animal.

Working memory model

Is a multicomponent system that manipulates information storage for greater and more complex cognitive utility.

Difference between memory models:

Only difference is sensory memory transfers to two different short term memory types – where its then combined.

Retrospective memory

short and long term memory of things that are stored for future use/ involves remembering events from the past or previously learned information.
Ex: learning a list of words and recalling it later

Prostective memory

Remembering you need to do something in the future/ remembering to perform delayed intentions at an appropriate time or event in the future.
Ex: you have homework tomorrow.

Memory organization

Hierarchies, schemas, Semantic networks

Hierarchies

Clusters (racimos) of information

Semantic networks

webs of information

Tip on the tonge phenomena

When you eel that you cant remember a word is because it is stuck in your semntic network.

Schemas

Is an organized group of past experiences and associations, which become active depending on context to help inform decisions and make predictions./ pre existant mental concepts of framewok
Ex: how a restourant should look like.

Princial neurotransmitter involved with memory:

Aceltylcholine

Long term potentation

Is a process involving persistent strengthening of synapses that leads to a long-lasting increase in signal transmission between neurons. Neural basis of memory, connections are strenghted over time with repeated stimulation.

Explicit memory

Hippocambus, Amygdala, Frontal lobe

Implicit Memory

Cerebellum

Hippocampus

Storage of most things

Amygdala

Storage of emotional memories.

Frontal Lobe

Encoding and retrieval

Cerebellum

Procedual memory, skills

Retrieval (recuperacion)

Retrieval is the process of recalling information from memory such as feelings, images, and events /The process of taking information out of storage

Serial position effect

Is the psychological tendency to remember the first and last items in a list better than those in the middle.
(Primacy and Recency)

Primacy (serial position effect)

remembering the beggining, it is transfer to long term memory.

Recency (serial position effect)

remembering the end, still in STM.

Emotional memories

Flashburn memories, Repressed memories

Flashburn memories

is a clear memory of an emotionally significant event, but it can sometimes be inaccurately remembered, adrenaline and cortisol (a stress hormone) help to solidify memories with acetylcholine.

Repressed memories

memories that have been removed from conscious awareness
Defense mechanism, banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness.

Memory validation

Memories become less accurate and more distorted over time. APA says memories before age 3 are unreliable (hippocampus not developed yet)

Anterograde Amnesia

is a type of memory loss that occurs when you can't form new memories.
Antero: amnesia moves foward.

Retrograde Amnesia

where you can't recall memories that were formed before the event that caused the amnesia.
Retro: amnesia moves back

Source Amnesia

is the inability to recall where, when, or how one has learned knowledge that has been acquired and retained.

Retrieval

Recall (recordar) and Recognition

Recall

the act of retrieving information or events from the past while lacking a specific cue to help in retrieving the information.

Recognition

a form of remembering characterized by a feeling of familiarity when something previously experienced is again encountered/remember info with clues

Encoding specifity principle

The more closely the retrieval clues match the form in which the information was encoded, the better the information will be
Remembered/memories are linked to the context in which they are created. It states that it's easier to recall information when you are in the same context in which you memorized or studied it.

Encoding failures

refers to a breakdown in the process of getting information in to the cognitive system. When encoding failures occur, the information doesn't get into memory. Encoding failures can occur because of inattention to the target information or interference when the target information is presented.

Proactive interference

Old info blocks new info

Retroactive Interference

New info blocks old info

Framing

Providing guiding questions “framing
the question” leads to biased answers/ the way that a problem is presented to someone, and it can drastically change that person's view or reaction to the problem.

Misinformation effect

The distortion of memory by suggestion or Misinformation / the way false or misleading information can distort their understanding even after they've received correct information.

Elizabeth loftus

eyewitness testimony
Her experiments reveal how memories can be changed by things that we are told. Facts, ideas, suggestions and other post-event information can modify our memories.

False Memories

False memories are constructed by combining actual memories with the content of suggestions received from others. During the process, individuals may forget the source of the information. This is a classic example of source confusion, in which the content and the source become dissociated.

Encoding

Refers to the initial experience of perceiving and learning information.

Automatic encoding

A process of memory where information is taken in and encoded without deliberate effort.

Effortfull encoding

Encoding of information that takes effort and attention

Self-referent encoding

We encode what we are interested in or relates to us

Imagery

One of the best encoding techniques,Mental imagery – using
images to help you remember info

Mnemonics

Strategies to help remember information.

Chunking

Organizing items into familiar, manageable units

Acronyms

use the first letter of things

Method of loci

A mnemonic technique in which the items to be remembered are converted into mental images and associated with specific positions or locations./combines self-created imagery with a list of items to remember

Peg-word system

Combines an already created rhyme with imagery to help you remember a list of items/a mnemonic strategy used to remember lists whereby each item is associated in imagination with a number–word pair (the peg)

Context dependent memory

The context (location) in which you learn info will be the best place to recall it

State dependent memory

The physical condition (state) you’re in influences what you’ll remember.

Dual encoding

Is the idea of using different types of stimuli to help learners encode information in their brains more effectively

Distributed practice (spacing effect):

A learning strategy, where practice is broken up into a number of short sessions over a longer period of time

Massed practice

A learning procedure in which practice trials occur close together in time, either in a single lengthy session or in sessions separated by short intervals. Massed practice is often found to be less effective than distributed practice.

Testing effect

the finding that taking a test on previously studied material leads to better retention than does restudying that material for an equivalent amount of time.

Depth of processing

The way in which a person thinks about a piece of information, for example, a shallow level of processing of a word would be to skim over a sentence and to understand the sentence without dwelling on the individual word.
The deeper your process something (i.e. the more meaningfully you think about it) the better you remember it.

Ebbinghaus forgwtting curve

Information is quickly forgotten over time
In the long run, you’re going to remember maybe 20 – 30% of information if you do not review it.
It shows how learned information slips out of our memories over time, unless we take action to keep it there.

Concepts

A concept is a verbal or written understanding of abstract thought
Mental categories used to group objects, events, and characteristics. It helps to generalize and make process simplier.
EX: how a chair should look like.

Classical model of concepts

All instances of a concept have defined properties.

Prototype model

All instances of a concept are compared to a prototype (ideal example) of that concept.

Metacognition

Refers to the knowledge and regulation of one's own cognitive processes, which has been regarded as a critical component of creative thinking. thinking and reflecting about your own thinking.

Sub-goaling

Set intermediate goals to help you reach the final solution

Trial and Error

Try out different solutions until you
find one that works.

Algorithm

Step by steps that guarantee a solution.

Heuristics

Shortcut strategy (“rule of thumb”) that suggests, but does not guarantee, a solution
By using a heuristic one has to accept the possibility of making an
error
They are faster than algorithms

We make many mistakes by using these heuristics, but these heuristics are economical, efficient, and an easy way to estimate an outcome
• In many cases, these estimations can be accurate or at least useful

Availability Heuristics

Relying on recent experience or exposure in order to judge frequency (first thing that pops into your mind).

Factors that influence AH

Bias due to retrievalvility

Illusory correlation: made up a relashionship when there is actually no correlation.

Representative heuristics

making inferences or predictions based on experience, think stereotypes.

Factors of influence RH

• Ignore probabilities

• Ignore sample sizes

• Regression toward the mean = the larger the sample size the closer you get to the mean

• Misconceptions of Chance
Gambler’s fallacy: people falsely believe if something happens more frequently than normal during a given period, it will happen less frequently in the future (or vice versa)

Divergent thinking

Is cognition that leads in various directions. encourages creativity, a question can have multiple answers.

Convergent thinking

Occurs when the solution to a problem can be deduced by applying established rules and logical reasoning. Limits creativity, question invites only one answer

Inductive reasoning

is a method of drawing conclusions by going from the specific to the general. data leads to conclusions. best example SHERLOCK

Deductive reasoning

Is a logical approach where you progress from general ideas to specific conclusions. idea then data.

Fixation

the inability to see a problem from others perspectives

Mental Set

the tendency to approach a problem in a designed way (only one)

Functional Fixedness

think of things in only terms of their usual function

Belief bias

The tendency of one’s preexisting beliefs to distort logical reasoning by making invalid conclusions.(twisting info to match our beliefs)

Belief perseverance

is the tendency to cling to one's initial belief even after receiving new information that contradicts or disconfirms the basis of that belief. Everyone has tried to change someone's belief, only to have them stubbornly remain unchanged. (not accept external opinion)

Confirmation bias

The act of selecting information according to preexisting beliefs, while ignoring or rejecting information supporting contrary beliefs./Tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and ignore or distort contradictory evidence.

Sensation

The process of receiving stimulus energies from the external enviorement.

Transduction

The process of transforming physical energy into electrochemical energy (Action Potential)

Perception

the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information.

Absolute threshold

the minimum ammount of energy an organism can detect 50% of the time.

Difference threshold

ability to tell difference between a stronger or weaker stimuli.