Unit 0 Introduction to Psychological Science Practices: Research Methods and Data Interpretation

critical thinking

thinking that does not automatically accept arguments and conclusions; it examines assumptions, appraises the source, discerns hidden biases, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions

hindsight bias

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it

peer reviewers

scientific experts who evaluate a research article's theory, originality, and accuracy

theory

an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events

hypothesis

a testable prediction, often implied by a theory

falsifiable

the possibility that an idea, hypothesis, or theory can be disproven by observation or experiment

operational definition

a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study

replication

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding can be reproduced

case study

a non-experimental technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

naturalistic observation

a non-experimental technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

survey

a non-experimental technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group

social desirability bias

bias from people's responding in ways they presume a researcher expects or wishes

self-report bias

bias when people report their behavior inaccurately

sampling bias

a flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample

random sample

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

population

all of those in a group being studied, from which random samples may be drawn

correlation

a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other

correlation coefficient

a statistical index of the relationship between two variables (from -1.00 to +1.00)

variable

anything that can vary and is feasible and ethical to measure

scatterplot

a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the relationship (little scatter indicates higher correlation)

illusory correlation

perceiving a relationship where none exists, or perceiving a stronger-than-actual relationship

regression toward the mean

the tendency for extreme or unusual scores to fall back toward the average

experiment

a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental processes (the dependent variable)

experimental group

in an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment—that is, to one version of the independent variable

control group

in an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment

random assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between the different groups

single-blind procedure

an experimental procedure in which the research participants are ignorant about whether they have received the treatment or placebo

double-blind procedure

an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant about whether the research participants have received the treatment or placebo; commonly used in drug-evaluation studies

placebo effect

experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent

independent variable

in an experiment, the factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied

confounding variable

in an experiment, a factor other than the factor being studied that might influence a study's result

experimenter bias

bias caused when researchers may unintentionally influence results to confirm their own beliefs

dependent variable

in an experiment, the outcome that is measured; the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated

validity

the extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it is supposed to

quantitative research

a research method that relies on quantifiable, numerical data

qualitative research

a research method that relies on in-depth, narrative data that are not translated into numbers

informed consent

giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate

debriefing

the post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants

descriptive statistics

numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups; include measures of central tendency and measures of variation

histogram

a bar graph depicting a frequency distribution

mode

the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution

mean

the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores

median

the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it

percentile rank

the percentage of scores that are lower than a given score

skewed distribution

a representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value

range

the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution

standard deviation

a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score

normal curve

a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (about 68 percent fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer scores lie near the extremes (also called a normal distribution)

inferential statistics

numerical data that allow one to generalize—to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population

meta-analysis

a statistical procedure for analyzing the results of multiple studies to reach an overall conclusion

statistical significance

a statistical statement of how likely it is that a result (such as a difference between samples) occurred by chance, assuming there is no difference between the populations being studied

effect size

the strength of the relationship between two variables; the larger the effect size, the more one variable can be explained by the other