AP Psychology: Learning Unit

Learning

the process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviors

Habituation

an organism's decreasing response to a stimulus with repeated exposure to it

associative learning

linking two stimuli, or events, that occur together

Stimulus

any event or situation that evokes a response

cognitive learning

the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language

Classical Conditioning (Pavlov)

a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events

Pavlov's classic experiment

Pavlov presented a neutral stimulus (a tone) just before an unconditioned stimulus (food in mouth). The neutral stimulus then became a conditioned stimulus, producing a conditioned response.

Behaviorism (Watson)

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).

neutral stimulus (NS)

a stimulus that does not initially elicit a response

unconditioned response (UR)

a reflexive reaction that is reliably produced by an unconditioned stimulus

unconditioned stimulus (US)

a stimulus that elicits a response, such as a reflex, without any prior learning

conditioned response (CR)

a learned response to a previously neutral stimulus

conditioned stimulus (CS)

a stimulus that elicits a response only after learning has taken place

acquisition

In classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.

higher-order conditioning

a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone. (Also called second-order conditioning.)

Extinction

the diminishing of a conditioned response

spontaneous recovery

the tendency of a learned behavior to recover from extinction after a rest period

Generalization

the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses

Discrimination

in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus

Little Albert Experiment (Watson)

A study in which a white rat was paired with a loud sudden noise in order to condition a fear response in an infant.

operant conditioning

a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher

B. F. Skinner (1904-1990)

Behavioral psychologist who developed the fundamental principles and techniques of operant conditioning and devised ways to apply them in the real world.

Law of Effect (Thorndike)

a behavior followed by a reward is is strengthened and more likely repeated

shaping (operant conditioning)

securing desired behaviour through reinforcement of it and of behaviours leading up to it

successive approximations

small steps in behavior, one after the other, that lead to a particular goal behavior

reinforcement is used to _ a behavior

strengthen

Reinforcement

in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

positive reinforcement

the reinforcement of a response by the addition or experiencing of a pleasurable stimulus

negative reinforcement

the reinforcement of a response by the removal, escape from, or avoidance of an unpleasant stimulus

primary reinforcer

an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need

secondary (conditioned) reinforcers

events that acquire reinforcing qualities by being associated with primary reinforcers

immediate reinforcer

a reinforcer that occurs instantly after a behavior

delayed reinforcer

involves time delay between desired response of and delivery of reward

continous reinforcement

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs- leads to a quick acquisition but also a quick extinction

partial reinforcement

reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement

punishment

any event or object that, when following a response, makes that response less likely to happen again

positive punishment

the administration of a stimulus to decrease the probability of a behavior's recurring- traffic ticket

negative punishment

the removal of a stimulus to decrease the probability of a behavior's recurring- taking away a privilege

Skinner Box

A small enclosure in which an animal can make a specific response that is systematically recorded while the consequences of the response are controlled.

token economy

an operant conditioning procedure in which people earn a token of some sort for exhibiting a desired behavior and can later exchange the tokens for various privileges or treats

latent learning

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

Premack Principle

A principle that states that making the opportunity to engage in a high-probability behavior contingent on the occurrence of a low-frequency behavior will function as reinforcement for the low-frequency behavior.

fixed-ratio schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses

variable-ratio schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses. best long-term affects & most responses

fixed-interval schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed

variable-interval schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals

continuous reinforcement

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs

observational learning

learning by observing others; also called social learning

taste aversion

A classically conditioned dislike for and avoidance of a particular food that develops when an organism becomes ill after eating the food.

cognitive maps (mental maps)

A mental image of the way space is organized as determined by an individual's perception, impression, and knowledge of that space.

One-Trial Conditioning

Learning that happens quickly after just one pairing of two things.

Biological Preparedness

a propensity for learning particular kinds of associations over others

habituation/dishabituation

the degree of response recovery that will tend to diminish when a response is repeatedly dishabituated

counterconditioning

a behavior therapy procedure that uses classical conditioning to evoke new responses to stimuli that are triggering unwanted behaviors; includes exposure therapies and aversive conditioning

Law of Effect

Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

Reinforcement Discrimination

The ability to distinguish between different situations where reinforcement is provided.

Reinforcement Generalization

The tendency to respond similarly to different stimuli that are associated with the same reinforcement.

Instinctive Drift

the tendency of learned behavior to gradually revert to biologically predisposed patterns

social learning theory

the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished

Vicarious Conditioning

classical conditioning of a reflex response or emotion by watching the reaction of another person

Modelling

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

Insight Learning

The process of learning how to solve a problem or do something new by applying what is already known