spanish conquest exam

Triple Alliance

Triple Alliance

• Aztecs, Texcocos, and Tlacopans joined military and political pact to challenge Tepanecs

• Systematic plundering of conquered territories

• Alliance extended beyond Valley of Mexico - to Pacific Ocean and Gulf of Mexico

• Formed a confederation where they maintained some level of independence from each other

• Each member had a leader who ruled a separate dominion

• In under 100 years, Aztecs became most powerful of the three

Years of Conquest (Aztecs)

Cortes arrives in 1519 - Spanish conquer in 1521

How Aztecs gained power

• By 1519, empire comprised of most territories and included several different indigenous groups

• Forced them to pay tributes to the emperor, provide men to the Aztec armies, and provide men and women for the ritual sacrifices performed by the Aztec priests

• Used military strength

Tenochtitlan as a symbol of power

• Large as many European capitals of the time

• Had canals, bridges, and causeways connecting it to the mainland across the lake

• Had stone aqueducts providing the inhabitants with fresh water

• Trade center of central Mexico

Motivations of conquistadors

• Sought to gain prestige, wealth, and social advancement via commitment to God and country

• Many did so at their own cost - using all of their savings for the enterprise

• In exchange, Spanish crown granted titles and rights to land in America

Motivations of Cortes

• Rivalry with De Velasquez

• Came from a lesser known Spanish noble family

• Arrived in colony of Hispaniola in 1504, with dreams of fortune and adventure

• Lived a lavish life but could not afford it - large reason why he wants to explore Mexico

• Decided to explore the American mainland looking for treasures ahead of other expeditions from the Caribbean settlements, such as Hispaniola

Religious reasons for lack of resistance

• Aztec accounts written after the conquest claim that in 1519:

  • Arrival of the Spanish on the Mexican coasts was interpreted as the fulfillment of an ancient prophecy

  • They identified Cortes and his men with the predicted return of the Aztec god of wisdom, Quetzacoatl, to his people

Strategic reasons for lack of resistance

• Moctezuma was following more recent experiences - the Spanish arriving in 1517 agreed to leave after they received large amounts of gold and other treasures - Moctezuma thought that if he did the same, the Spanish would turn back once again

• Aztec generosity had the opposite effect on Cortes - the more valuables presented to the Spanish, the more determined they were to stay

Political motivations for expansion

• Spanish and Portuguese were competing in the Americas, making the exploration and conquest of land a priority for Spain - Portuguese were ahead

• First reports on the Americas made the Spanish monarchs aware of the fact that they could obtain equal gains

• Second expedition to Americas in 1517 found evidence of the riches in the region

Religious motivations for expansion

• Catholic monarchs justified the conquest of the Americas by the terms that the Pope had established - the imposition of Catholicism on the conquered territories

• Conversion of indigenous people to Christianity was considered duty of the Spanish crown

• Additionally you have the spiritual motive - worth the risk of the voyages and exploration

Economic motivations for expansion

• Earlier voyages of exploration acquainted Spain with America’s precious metals and exotic goods which increased the interest and the pace of exploration

Inca religious beliefs

• Theocracy - founded on the belief that the Emperor, Sapa Inca, was a descendent of Inti, their sun god

• Inca was both a political and religious authority

• Community was interchangeable with religious beliefs - everything was influenced by the gods and ancestors

• Influenced by those of past civilizations such as the Wari and the Tiwanaku

• Incan religion was forced on all communities of the empire, but many local beliefs and practices continued

• Oracles and shamans played important roles in society

• Believed that the world was created at Lake Titicaca

• Creator god was Viracocha - once he had created humans and the natural features of the earth, he disguised himself and played a role in the creation of Inca culture and the founding of Cusco

Size of Inca Empire

• Extended from the north of Ecuador to the South of Chile, and from the Pacific coast to the Amazon basin

• 30,000 km of roads connecting the empire

Capitals of Inca Empire

• Cusco - in a valley over 11,000 feet in the Andes mountains - starting point of the complex road network

• Quito - in the north, created to strengthen control in the area

• Cajamarca - where Atahualpa ruled from - close to Pacific ocean but far from Cusco

Challenges of Inca Empire

• Numerous societies which spoke not only different languages, but also had different traditions and religious beliefs

• Although the Incas used several methods to improve their rule, the conquered tribes rebelled repeatedly

• Many communities were forced to relocate or merge with other more loyal

• Political instability, caused by the vastness and diversity of the empire, which led to the foundation of a second capital in the north, Quito, to strengthen control in the area

Military advantages of Spanish (Inca)

• Spears and clubs could not match Spanish weapons

• Horse were also decisive, facilitated the mobilization of the conquerors - dogs of the conquerors also caused terror among the natives because of their ferocity

• Additionally, the Incas methods of warfare lacked flexibility

  • Did not modify their tactics to take advantage of the opportunities presented to them in battle

  • Also the armies were very dependent on their officers and retreated in a panic of their leaders were killed in action

Political advantages of Spanish (Inca)

• Death of both Hascar and Atahualpa had not ended the internal rivalries

• Tribes which had been conquered by the Inca did not consider the new rulers a legitimate authority

• Some smaller tribes ally with the Spanish - this prevented the empire from presenting a united front against the Spanish

Other advantages of Spanish (Inca)

• Smallpox and influenza arrived in the Inca empire from the North before the Spanish conquest - killed a third of the Inca population as they lacked immunity against European diseases

• High mortality rate affected the communication network which relied on men traveling with the news and prevented the officers in Cusco from being informed of what was happening in the north

• Causes the Incas to lose their workforce, and this had a detrimental effect on productivity

Atahualpa vs. Huascar situation

• Heir apparent died in 1524, his father Inca Huayna Capac divided the empire between two of his sons to rule after his death

• Huascar, a legitimate son of Huayna Capac, was given most of the territory, including Cusco

• His illegitimate half brother, Atahualpa, was to rule over the northern city of Quito and its surrounding territories

• Caused a civil war for the empire between the two brothers, but it did not cause the reunification of the empire under a single ruler - Incas’ loyalties were still divided

• Huascar ruled most of the territory and had the support of the nobility

• Atahualpa had the loyalty of the Inca army stationed near Quito

Why split between the two brothers?

• Make the administration and control of his vast empire more efficient by dividing it between his sons

• Historians claim that, although Huascar was his legitimate heir, Huayna Capac’s favorite was Atahualpa

Justification and ending of conquest

• Pizarro justifies death of Atahualpa by claiming that Huascar was the legitimate heir

• Claims to have avenged Huascar and freed the Incas of the oppressive rule of Atahualpa - this gained them support from many groups across the empire

• After the initial conquest - pizarro and his men left Cajamarca searching for more treasures

• Rebellions spread across the empire as the Incas resisted the conquest - both Cusco an the new capital founded by Pizarro, Lima, were encircled by the Incas on several occasions

• It was only in 1572, when the Spanish captured and executed the last Inca ruler, Tupac Amaru, that the Inca finally ended

Encomienda system

• Grant by the Spanish Crown to a colonist in America conferring the right to demand tribute and forced labor from the Native inhabitants of an area

• Originally introduced during the Reconquista of Muslim Spain

• Became an effective instrument to consolidate the dominion of the territory

• Indigenous had to work for the encomenderos - in return, the encomenderos duties were to secure the welfare of those living in his land, their subsistence, as well as the religious instruction in the Christian faith

Problems with encomienda system

• In many cases, the encomienda became a form of slavery - soon, voices such as those of Bartolome de Las Casas were raised to announce these abuses

• Encomenderos showed ruthless intolerance and indifference to their workers

• Many were faced with fulfilling their quotas and starving to death or not fulfilling their quotas and facing lethal capital punishment

• Hundreds of thousands of Peruvians died in the first year of the encomienda system, especially those who worked in the mines harvesting elements such as Mercury

• Encomenderos did not visit the lands they controlled, forcing tributaries to carry their profits for days to deliver them to the larger cities their rulers resided within

• The lands were controlled by native chieftains or overseers who often required tribute themselves

• Priests were stationed on the land to promote catholicism, many of which also abused the people by taking wives or requiring even more tribute

Mita system

• Incan system where all males starting at the age of 15 were required to participate in the mit’a to do public services - overseers were responsible to make sure that a person after fulfilling his duty in the mit’a still had enough time to care for his own land and family

• System established by the Inca Empire in order to construct buildings or create roads throughout the empire - later transformers into a coercive labor system when the Spanish conquered the Inca Empire, and it was in effect from 1573 to 1812

• Spanish used this system to get free labor from the indigenous people as a form of tribute - the indigenous people would provide agricultural labor or work in textile mills, but the most common form of labor was working in the mines

Effects of mining

• Incan men would have to work in the mines every seven years, but as time went on it became more frequent - deaths and injuries in the dangerous conditions of the mines

• This also contributed to the declining population of indigenous people - as a result, many natives moved away in order to avoid the mit’a system

• As the Spanish were driven towards making profit, they did not put native welfare at the heart of the system

Social and demographic impacts

• Indigenous people were relegated to the bottom of the social pyramid

• Despite the effort to legally separate the indigenous from the Spanish, the two groups eventually began to mix, and the result was the creation of the mestizo person - a person with a mixture of indigenous and European blood

• Spanish were the first Europeans to use slaves on the American continent - African slaves first arrived in the 1490s and early 1500s

• Many Africans were sent to Mexico and Peru

• Mulatos, the mix of European and African races, and zambos, the mix of indigenous and Africans, became new races in the conquered territories

• Most of the Native Americans who died were probably killed by European diseases, against which they had no immunity - the Mexican indigenous population was reduced from 25 million in 1520 to perhaps 3 million by 1560 - in Peru the figures are something like 9 million in 1530, reduced to 600,000 by 1620

• The loss of lives continued after the fall of the empires - among the demographic consequences of the conquest is the loss of 90% of the continent’s indigenous populations

New Capitals

• Capital of viceroyalty in New Spain remained in Tenochtitlan and was renamed Mexico CIty

• Pizarro founded Lima on the Pacific coast in modern day Peru as new Inca Capital

Religious impacts and religious/cultural syncretism

• Conversion policy continued after the fall of the empires (real aim of ensuring the native population’s compliance with Spanish rule?)

• Faced with resistance to abandoning native beliefs, the Spanish administration organized violent campaigns to force conversion

  • Ordered the destruction of indigenous temples and buildings, as well as any vestige of their culture and customs

• On the surface, Christianity was respected, but the natives continued to worship their gods in private

• The result was religious and cultural syncretism (mixing of religious and cultural elements)

• The Spanish Christian and cultural elements were incorporated but understood within the indigenous cultural background

Mexican Virgin of Guadalupe

• The Virgin Guadalupe can be perceived as a cross between the Catholic Virgin Mary and the Nahua mother goddess of fertility Tonantzin, showing it as a combination of both Christian and Indigenous beliefs

• The location of the shrine to the Virgin Guadalupe is located on Tepeyac Hill, the original location of a Nahua temple to Tonantzin, suggesting that the Spanish Catholics trying to convert the natives in the 16th century could have decided to claim the Nahua goddess as a Christian icon, therefore combining the two religious beliefs into the figure of the Virgin Guadalupe that is so important to Mexicans in the present

• The fact that these more plausible explanations are not as accepted as the myth of Juan Diego shows how the combination of the cultures is here so intertwined - she is a strong nationalistic symbol in Mexico, serving as a figure of their protection

Methods used by Inca to expand empire

• Used spies to see wealth of nearby kingdoms - sent messengers to offer joining their empire, and become educated in the ways of the Incas

• Huge multicultural army to conquer opposition

• Highways linked all the sections of the empire

• Integrated independent states into empire instead of taking as tributaries

Inca education

• Began at approximately 12 years old, lasted 4 years

• Education was based on hearing and memorizing

• Dedicated to children of Inca nobility, the children of the rulers, and women of high beauty and social status

• Children of nobles received Quechua language instruction in their first year

• Astronomy, medicine, surgery, astronomy, and mathematics

Inca social class

• Social class was much like that of feudal Europe

• The Emperor and his immediate family was on top of the structure, next came nobles below them, then merchants and specialists, and finally peasants and farmers, who made up the majority of the population

• Those who were “Inca blood,” or descendants from native Cuzcoans have deemed a higher social standard than the others

• Inca royalty was selected by the Emperor, who had children with the “Coya” or his first wife - to purify Sapa Inca blood this was usually his sister

• Communicating with others not in your social class was rare and seen as taboo

• The most common, and one of the only ways to move through social classes was with marriage

Bartolome de Las Casas arguments against encomienda

• Promoted the “New Laws” which gave indigenous subjects specific rights

• Under Spanish law, the indigenous were technically listed as Spanish subjects with specific rights, all of which were violated under the encomienda system

• Under the New Laws, abuse of native peoples was threatened with the revoking of encomiendas themselves

• Although De las Casas participated in the colonization of the West Indies, he relentlessly advocated for the better treatment of indigenous people, even returning to Spain when he realized his efforts were useless while across seas

What was the effect of mining on the indigenous population in the Spanish conquest?

a. increase in injuries and deaths

b. migration of natives

c. declining population due to demands of labor

d. all of the above

d. all of the above

When did the Inca Empire come to an end?

1572 (conquest began in 1532)

Who led the conquest against the Aztecs?

Hernan Cortes

Why did the Inca empire split into two factions?

A rivalry between half brothers Atahualpa and Huascar

What type of government did the Inca Empire have?

a. democracy

b. theocracy

c. republic

d. anarchy

b. theocracy

What was the religious belief of the Aztec empire?

polytheism

What was the political center of the Inca empire (think bellybutton)?

a. cajamarca

b. cusco

c. lima

d. quito

b. cusco

What motivated most of the conquistadors during the exploration?

a. gold and silver

b. social status improvement

c. desire for glory

d. all of the above

d. all of the above

What is the name given to people like Cortes?

a. conquistadors

b. settlers

c. invaders

d. explorers

a. conquistadors

Where was the capital of the Aztec Empire located?

a. Hills of Mexico

b. Lake Texcoco

c. Yucatan Peninsula

d. Pacific Ocean

b. Lake Texcoco

Who were the rivals of the Aztecs?

a. Tepanecs

b. Texcocos

c. Tlacopans

d. all of the above

a. Tepanecs

What was the name of the ruler of the Incas at the beginning of the conquest?

Atahualpa

How did the Inca Empire expand its territory?

a. through diplomatic negotiations

b. through peaceful annexation and armed conflict

c. through the monetization of the road networks

d. through trade agreements

b. through peaceful annexation and armed conflict

What was the system of communication used by the Incas?

quipu

How did the Aztecs maintain their rule over the conquered territories?

tribute systems, ritual sacrifices, military

What year did the Spanish conquer the Aztecs?

1521 (first arrived in 1519)

What’s another name for Aztecs?

Mexicas

Which labor system required all males?

Mit’a

Which city was founded as the new capital by Pizarro?

Lima