Studied by 100 people
Triple Alliance
Aztecs, Texcocos, and Tlacopans joined military and political pact to challenge Tepanecs
Systematic plundering of conquered territories
Alliance extended beyond Valley of Mexico - to Pacific Ocean and Gulf of Mexico
Formed a confederation where they maintained some level of independence from each other
Each member had a leader who ruled a separate dominion
In under 100 years, Aztecs became most powerful of the three
Years of Conquest (Aztecs)
Cortes arrives in 1519 - Spanish conquer in 1521
How Aztecs gained power
By 1519, empire comprised of most territories and included several different indigenous groups
Forced them to pay tributes to the emperor, provide men to the Aztec armies, and provide men and women for the ritual sacrifices performed by the Aztec priests
Used military strength
Tenochtitlan as a symbol of power
Large as many European capitals of the time
Had canals, bridges, and causeways connecting it to the mainland across the lake
Had stone aqueducts providing the inhabitants with fresh water
Trade center of central Mexico
Motivations of conquistadors
Sought to gain prestige, wealth, and social advancement via commitment to God and country
Many did so at their own cost - using all of their savings for the enterprise
In exchange, Spanish crown granted titles and rights to land in America
Motivations of Cortes
Rivalry with De Velasquez
Came from a lesser known Spanish noble family
Arrived in colony of Hispaniola in 1504, with dreams of fortune and adventure
Lived a lavish life but could not afford it - large reason why he wants to explore Mexico
Decided to explore the American mainland looking for treasures ahead of other expeditions from the Caribbean settlements, such as Hispaniola
Religious reasons for lack of resistance
Aztec accounts written after the conquest claim that in 1519:
Arrival of the Spanish on the Mexican coasts was interpreted as the fulfillment of an ancient prophecy
They identified Cortes and his men with the predicted return of the Aztec god of wisdom, Quetzacoatl, to his people
Strategic reasons for lack of resistance
Moctezuma was following more recent experiences - the Spanish arriving in 1517 agreed to leave after they received large amounts of gold and other treasures - Moctezuma thought that if he did the same, the Spanish would turn back once again
Aztec generosity had the opposite effect on Cortes - the more valuables presented to the Spanish, the more determined they were to stay
Political motivations for expansion
Spanish and Portuguese were competing in the Americas, making the exploration and conquest of land a priority for Spain - Portuguese were ahead
First reports on the Americas made the Spanish monarchs aware of the fact that they could obtain equal gains
Second expedition to Americas in 1517 found evidence of the riches in the region
Religious motivations for expansion
Catholic monarchs justified the conquest of the Americas by the terms that the Pope had established - the imposition of Catholicism on the conquered territories
Conversion of indigenous people to Christianity was considered duty of the Spanish crown
Additionally you have the spiritual motive - worth the risk of the voyages and exploration
Economic motivations for expansion
Earlier voyages of exploration acquainted Spain with America’s precious metals and exotic goods which increased the interest and the pace of exploration
Inca religious beliefs
Theocracy - founded on the belief that the Emperor, Sapa Inca, was a descendent of Inti, their sun god
Inca was both a political and religious authority
Community was interchangeable with religious beliefs - everything was influenced by the gods and ancestors
Influenced by those of past civilizations such as the Wari and the Tiwanaku
Incan religion was forced on all communities of the empire, but many local beliefs and practices continued
Oracles and shamans played important roles in society
Believed that the world was created at Lake Titicaca
Creator god was Viracocha - once he had created humans and the natural features of the earth, he disguised himself and played a role in the creation of Inca culture and the founding of Cusco
Size of Inca Empire
Extended from the north of Ecuador to the South of Chile, and from the Pacific coast to the Amazon basin
30,000 km of roads connecting the empire
Capitals of Inca Empire
Cusco - in a valley over 11,000 feet in the Andes mountains - starting point of the complex road network
Quito - in the north, created to strengthen control in the area
Cajamarca - where Atahualpa ruled from - close to Pacific ocean but far from Cusco
Challenges of Inca Empire
Numerous societies which spoke not only different languages, but also had different traditions and religious beliefs
Although the Incas used several methods to improve their rule, the conquered tribes rebelled repeatedly
Many communities were forced to relocate or merge with other more loyal
Political instability, caused by the vastness and diversity of the empire, which led to the foundation of a second capital in the north, Quito, to strengthen control in the area
Military advantages of Spanish (Inca)
Spears and clubs could not match Spanish weapons
Horse were also decisive, facilitated the mobilization of the conquerors - dogs of the conquerors also caused terror among the natives because of their ferocity
Additionally, the Incas methods of warfare lacked flexibility
Did not modify their tactics to take advantage of the opportunities presented to them in battle
Also the armies were very dependent on their officers and retreated in a panic of their leaders were killed in action
Political advantages of Spanish (Inca)
Death of both Hascar and Atahualpa had not ended the internal rivalries
Tribes which had been conquered by the Inca did not consider the new rulers a legitimate authority
Some smaller tribes ally with the Spanish - this prevented the empire from presenting a united front against the Spanish
Other advantages of Spanish (Inca)
Smallpox and influenza arrived in the Inca empire from the North before the Spanish conquest - killed a third of the Inca population as they lacked immunity against European diseases
High mortality rate affected the communication network which relied on men traveling with the news and prevented the officers in Cusco from being informed of what was happening in the north
Causes the Incas to lose their workforce, and this had a detrimental effect on productivity
Atahualpa vs. Huascar situation
Heir apparent died in 1524, his father Inca Huayna Capac divided the empire between two of his sons to rule after his death
Huascar, a legitimate son of Huayna Capac, was given most of the territory, including Cusco
His illegitimate half brother, Atahualpa, was to rule over the northern city of Quito and its surrounding territories
Caused a civil war for the empire between the two brothers, but it did not cause the reunification of the empire under a single ruler - Incas’ loyalties were still divided
Huascar ruled most of the territory and had the support of the nobility
Atahualpa had the loyalty of the Inca army stationed near Quito
Why split between the two brothers?
Make the administration and control of his vast empire more efficient by dividing it between his sons
Historians claim that, although Huascar was his legitimate heir, Huayna Capac’s favorite was Atahualpa
Justification and ending of conquest
Pizarro justifies death of Atahualpa by claiming that Huascar was the legitimate heir
Claims to have avenged Huascar and freed the Incas of the oppressive rule of Atahualpa - this gained them support from many groups across the empire
After the initial conquest - pizarro and his men left Cajamarca searching for more treasures
Rebellions spread across the empire as the Incas resisted the conquest - both Cusco an the new capital founded by Pizarro, Lima, were encircled by the Incas on several occasions
It was only in 1572, when the Spanish captured and executed the last Inca ruler, Tupac Amaru, that the Inca finally ended
Encomienda system
Grant by the Spanish Crown to a colonist in America conferring the right to demand tribute and forced labor from the Native inhabitants of an area
Originally introduced during the Reconquista of Muslim Spain
Became an effective instrument to consolidate the dominion of the territory
Indigenous had to work for the encomenderos - in return, the encomenderos duties were to secure the welfare of those living in his land, their subsistence, as well as the religious instruction in the Christian faith
Problems with encomienda system
In many cases, the encomienda became a form of slavery - soon, voices such as those of Bartolome de Las Casas were raised to announce these abuses
Encomenderos showed ruthless intolerance and indifference to their workers
Many were faced with fulfilling their quotas and starving to death or not fulfilling their quotas and facing lethal capital punishment
Hundreds of thousands of Peruvians died in the first year of the encomienda system, especially those who worked in the mines harvesting elements such as Mercury
Encomenderos did not visit the lands they controlled, forcing tributaries to carry their profits for days to deliver them to the larger cities their rulers resided within
The lands were controlled by native chieftains or overseers who often required tribute themselves
Priests were stationed on the land to promote catholicism, many of which also abused the people by taking wives or requiring even more tribute
Mita system
Incan system where all males starting at the age of 15 were required to participate in the mit’a to do public services - overseers were responsible to make sure that a person after fulfilling his duty in the mit’a still had enough time to care for his own land and family
System established by the Inca Empire in order to construct buildings or create roads throughout the empire - later transformers into a coercive labor system when the Spanish conquered the Inca Empire, and it was in effect from 1573 to 1812
Spanish used this system to get free labor from the indigenous people as a form of tribute - the indigenous people would provide agricultural labor or work in textile mills, but the most common form of labor was working in the mines
Effects of mining
Incan men would have to work in the mines every seven years, but as time went on it became more frequent - deaths and injuries in the dangerous conditions of the mines
This also contributed to the declining population of indigenous people - as a result, many natives moved away in order to avoid the mit’a system
As the Spanish were driven towards making profit, they did not put native welfare at the heart of the system
Social and demographic impacts
Indigenous people were relegated to the bottom of the social pyramid
Despite the effort to legally separate the indigenous from the Spanish, the two groups eventually began to mix, and the result was the creation of the mestizo person - a person with a mixture of indigenous and European blood
Spanish were the first Europeans to use slaves on the American continent - African slaves first arrived in the 1490s and early 1500s
Many Africans were sent to Mexico and Peru
Mulatos, the mix of European and African races, and zambos, the mix of indigenous and Africans, became new races in the conquered territories
Most of the Native Americans who died were probably killed by European diseases, against which they had no immunity - the Mexican indigenous population was reduced from 25 million in 1520 to perhaps 3 million by 1560 - in Peru the figures are something like 9 million in 1530, reduced to 600,000 by 1620
The loss of lives continued after the fall of the empires - among the demographic consequences of the conquest is the loss of 90% of the continent’s indigenous populations
New Capitals
Capital of viceroyalty in New Spain remained in Tenochtitlan and was renamed Mexico CIty
Pizarro founded Lima on the Pacific coast in modern day Peru as new Inca Capital
Religious impacts and religious/cultural syncretism
Conversion policy continued after the fall of the empires (real aim of ensuring the native population’s compliance with Spanish rule?)
Faced with resistance to abandoning native beliefs, the Spanish administration organized violent campaigns to force conversion
Ordered the destruction of indigenous temples and buildings, as well as any vestige of their culture and customs
On the surface, Christianity was respected, but the natives continued to worship their gods in private
The result was religious and cultural syncretism (mixing of religious and cultural elements)
The Spanish Christian and cultural elements were incorporated but understood within the indigenous cultural background
Mexican Virgin of Guadalupe
The Virgin Guadalupe can be perceived as a cross between the Catholic Virgin Mary and the Nahua mother goddess of fertility Tonantzin, showing it as a combination of both Christian and Indigenous beliefs
The location of the shrine to the Virgin Guadalupe is located on Tepeyac Hill, the original location of a Nahua temple to Tonantzin, suggesting that the Spanish Catholics trying to convert the natives in the 16th century could have decided to claim the Nahua goddess as a Christian icon, therefore combining the two religious beliefs into the figure of the Virgin Guadalupe that is so important to Mexicans in the present
The fact that these more plausible explanations are not as accepted as the myth of Juan Diego shows how the combination of the cultures is here so intertwined - she is a strong nationalistic symbol in Mexico, serving as a figure of their protection
Methods used by Inca to expand empire
Used spies to see wealth of nearby kingdoms - sent messengers to offer joining their empire, and become educated in the ways of the Incas
Huge multicultural army to conquer opposition
Highways linked all the sections of the empire
Integrated independent states into empire instead of taking as tributaries
Inca education
Began at approximately 12 years old, lasted 4 years
Education was based on hearing and memorizing
Dedicated to children of Inca nobility, the children of the rulers, and women of high beauty and social status
Children of nobles received Quechua language instruction in their first year
Astronomy, medicine, surgery, astronomy, and mathematics
Inca social class
Social class was much like that of feudal Europe
The Emperor and his immediate family was on top of the structure, next came nobles below them, then merchants and specialists, and finally peasants and farmers, who made up the majority of the population
Those who were “Inca blood,” or descendants from native Cuzcoans have deemed a higher social standard than the others
Inca royalty was selected by the Emperor, who had children with the “Coya” or his first wife - to purify Sapa Inca blood this was usually his sister
Communicating with others not in your social class was rare and seen as taboo
The most common, and one of the only ways to move through social classes was with marriage
Bartolome de Las Casas arguments against encomienda
Promoted the “New Laws” which gave indigenous subjects specific rights
Under Spanish law, the indigenous were technically listed as Spanish subjects with specific rights, all of which were violated under the encomienda system
Under the New Laws, abuse of native peoples was threatened with the revoking of encomiendas themselves
Although De las Casas participated in the colonization of the West Indies, he relentlessly advocated for the better treatment of indigenous people, even returning to Spain when he realized his efforts were useless while across seas
What was the effect of mining on the indigenous population in the Spanish conquest?
a. increase in injuries and deaths
b. migration of natives
c. declining population due to demands of labor
d. all of the above
d. all of the above
When did the Inca Empire come to an end?
1572 (conquest began in 1532)
Who led the conquest against the Aztecs?
Hernan Cortes
Why did the Inca empire split into two factions?
A rivalry between half brothers Atahualpa and Huascar
What type of government did the Inca Empire have?
a. democracy
b. theocracy
c. republic
d. anarchy
b. theocracy
What was the religious belief of the Aztec empire?
polytheism
What was the political center of the Inca empire (think bellybutton)?
a. cajamarca
b. cusco
c. lima
d. quito
b. cusco
What motivated most of the conquistadors during the exploration?
a. gold and silver
b. social status improvement
c. desire for glory
d. all of the above
d. all of the above
What is the name given to people like Cortes?
a. conquistadors
b. settlers
c. invaders
d. explorers
a. conquistadors
Where was the capital of the Aztec Empire located?
a. Hills of Mexico
b. Lake Texcoco
c. Yucatan Peninsula
d. Pacific Ocean
b. Lake Texcoco
Who were the rivals of the Aztecs?
a. Tepanecs
b. Texcocos
c. Tlacopans
d. all of the above
a. Tepanecs
What was the name of the ruler of the Incas at the beginning of the conquest?
Atahualpa
How did the Inca Empire expand its territory?
a. through diplomatic negotiations
b. through peaceful annexation and armed conflict
c. through the monetization of the road networks
d. through trade agreements
b. through peaceful annexation and armed conflict
What was the system of communication used by the Incas?
quipu
How did the Aztecs maintain their rule over the conquered territories?
tribute systems, ritual sacrifices, military
What year did the Spanish conquer the Aztecs?
1521 (first arrived in 1519)
What’s another name for Aztecs?
Mexicas
Which labor system required all males?
Mit’a
Which city was founded as the new capital by Pizarro?
Lima
Note 
Flashcard (90)