P1 (Memory, Attachment & Psychopathology): 16 Markers

Memory

Describe & Evaluate the Multi-Store Model of Memory (MSM)

• AO1: Atkinson and Shiffrin assumed that there are three separate memory stores (sensory register, STM store and LTM store) where information is transferred in a linear sequence so, to transfer information from the sensory register to the STM store, attention must be paid and to transfer information from the STM store from the LTM store, it must be rehearsed. The sensory register has a duration of less than a second, an unlimited capacity and it encodes differently depending on what sense the information is detected by. The STM store has a duration of 18 seconds, a capacity of 7+/-2 items (Miller) and it encodes auditorily. The LTM store has a duration of 30+ seconds, an unlimited capacity of at least 47 years (Bahrick) and it encodes semantically.

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  • One strength of the MSM is that there’s supporting evidence. For example, patient HM underwent a lobotomy to control his seizures which resulted in him losing his LTM but not his STM as he had forgot the prior 11 years of his life. This is a strength because it supports the idea that there are separate stores which can be damaged independently, increasing the internal validity of the MSM.

  • However, one limitation of using case studies as supporting evidence is that they lack generalisability. This is due to the fact they only study one person or a small group of people, usually, who are in a very unique scenario (e.g. in regards to HM’s case, not many people have had lobotomies). This is a limitation because findings from case studies are idiographic.

  • Another limitation of the MSM is that it is overly simplistic. For example, Shallice and Warrington studied patient KF who had suffered brain damage and therefore had a poor STM for verbal information however, he could process visual information. This is a limitation because it suggests there are separate visual and acoustic stores of STM, making the MSM seem overly simplistic and reductionist.

Memory

Outline & Evaluate the Working Memory Model (WMM)

• AO1: Baddeley suggested that STM has separate stores (one for visual processing and one for processing sounds). The WMM is concerned with the part of the brain that is active when temporarily storing information. The central executive oversees everything and directs attention to specific tasks however, it cannot attend to many things at once so it recruits the slaves (phonological loop and visuiospatial sketchpad). The phonological loop deals with auditory information, it has a limited capacity and is split into two strands (phonological store and articulatory process). The phonological store holds words heard and the artculatory process plays those words on loop as a form of maintenance rehearsal. The visuospatial sketchpad deals with visual and spatial information, it has a limited capacity and is split into two branches (visual cache and inner scribe). The visual cache stores information such as the colour of objects and the inner scribe stores the arrangement of objects. The episodic buffer is a general store which maintains a sense of time sequencing and combines then sends information from the central exectuive, phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad to the LTM.

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  • One strength of the WMM is that there’s supporting evidence. For example, Shallice and Warrington studied patient KF who had suffered brain damage and therefore had a poor STM for verbal information however, he could process visual information. This is a strength because it suggests there are separate visual and acoustic stores of STM, increasing the internal validity of the WMM.

  • However, one limitation of using case studies as supporting evidence is that they lack generalisability. This is due to the fact they only study one person or a small group of people, usually, who are in a very unique scenario (e.g. in regards to patient KF’s case, not many people have brain damage and the severity varies). This is a limitation because findings from case studies are idiographic.

  • Another limitation of the WMM is that it lacks clarity. The central exectutive is poorly defined and its exact function is unclear. Instead, psychologists believe there are multiple cognitive processes that take place; this has been proved by neuroimaging studies that show different areas of the brain are active when the central exective is ‘active’. This is a limitation because it decreases the internal validity of the WMM.

Attachment

Discuss the Learning Theory Explanation of Attachment

• AO1: Dollard and Miller theorised that infants form attachments as a result of classical and operant coniditoning. In terms of classical coniditoning, food begins as an unconiditoned stimulus and the infant’s pleasure is an unconditioned response. At this point, the caregiver is a neutral stimulus as they elicit no response from the infant until they are paired with food. This results in the caregiver becoming a conditioned stimulus and the infant’s pleasure becoming the coniditoned response. As for operant coniditoning, infants cry when they’re hungry, causing their caregiver to feed them which allows the infant to avoid the negative consequence of hunger (negative reinforcement). Similarly, they gain the reward of pleasure from being fed (positive reinforcment).

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  • One strength of learning theory is that there’s supporting evidence. For example, Dollard and Miller conducted a study which resulted in them concluding that infants are fed around 2,000 times by their caregiver in the first year of their life. This is a strength because it shows that there’s plenty of time for an attachment to form via classical coniditoning, increasing the internal validity of learning theory.

  • One limitation of learning theory is that there’s opposing evidence. For example, Harlow’s study on attachment in rhesus monkeys showed that monkeys priortise comfort over psysiological needs (e.g. eating). This is a limitation because it suggests learning theory is wrong to assume that feeding infants is what motivates them to form attachments however, it can be argued Harlow’s finding cannot be generalised to humans.

  • Another limitation of learning theory is that it suggests attachments are learnt rather than innate. Both Bowlby’s monotropic theory and Lorenz’s study of attachment in goslings challenge the assumption that attachments are learnt as Bowlby theorised attachments have an evolutionary function and Lorenz found that goslings imprint on the first moving object they see to ensure survival. This is a limitation because these other examples suggest attachment is innate rather than learnt, decreasing the internal validity of learning theory.

Attachment

Discuss Bowlby’s Monotropic Theory of Attachment

• AO1: Bowlby proposed an evolutionary and adaptive explanation of attachment, claiming infants are born with an innate desire to form attachments to ensure their survival, for example, babies cry when something is wrong to attract the attention of their caregiver. Bowlby called these signs social releasers - they are innate ‘cute’ behaviours infants do to get the attention of their caregiver. Furthermore, he believed that attachments are monotropic, meaning infants form one strong attachment to a caregiver (this is usually their mother). This attachment must be formed within the critical period which Bowlby believed is the first 2.5 years of life, if not, an attachment is unlikely to form, dangering the infant’s chances of survival. Finally, Bowlby theorised that monotropic attachments form infants’ internal working models. This is the idea that expectations of relationships are formed by parental relationships in early life. For example, if an infant has an insecure-resistant attachment to their caregiver, they will likely expect care and love in future friendly or romantic relationships to be inconsistent.

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  • One strength of Bowlby’s monotropic theory is that there’s supporting evidence for the critical period. For example, Harlow’s study on attachment in rhesus monkeys showed that there was a critical period of 90 days to avoid damage from early deprivation. This is a strength because it supports Bowlby’s idea of the critical period in attachment, increasing the internal validity of Bowlby’s monotropic theory.

  • Another strength of Bowlby’s monotropic theory is that it has practical application. For example, Bowlby’s ideas help psychologists understand why some children suffer from developmental issues later in life. This is a strength because it allows for strategies to be put in place in early years, such as nurseries, to facilitate healthy development in children.

  • One limitation of Bowlby’s monotropic theory is that it’s socially sensitive. Specifically, Bowlby’s idea of monotropy is socially sensitive because it implies mothers who work negatively affect their child’s emotional development because they’re encouraging separation. This is a limitation because it may result in society restricting mothers’ activities (e.g. returning to work after maternity leave).

Attachment

Describe & Evaluate Ainsworth’s Work on Attachment

• AO1: Ainsworth is well known for her ‘Strange Situation’ experiment which aimed to assess the quality of caregiver-infant attachments. In order to investigate this, she came up with a standardised script consisting of 8 episodes - each of these episodes assess a particular behaviour (stranger anxiety, separation anxiety, secure-base behaviour and reunion behaviour). First, the caregiver and their infant would enter an unfamiliar room and the baby would be encouraged to explore (secure-base behaviour). Next, a stranger enters (stranger anxiety) then the caregiver leaves (separation anxiety) so the stranger and infant are left together. This is followed by the caregiver returning (reunion behaviour) and the stranger leaving before the caregiver leaves (separation anxiety), resulting in the infant being left alone. The stranger returns (stranger anxiety) before leaving and, finally, the caregiver returns and is reunited with their infant (reunion behaviour). From this, Ainsworth identified three types of attachment (secure, insecure-avoidant and insecure-resistant).

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  • One strength of Ainsworth’s Strange Situation is that it’s a controlled observation carried out in a lab setting. The 8 standardised episodes mean all particpants experience the same conditions, allowing Ainsworth to have high control of any extraneous variables therefore making it easy to establish a cause and effect relationship. This is a strength because increases the internal validity of the study.

  • Another strength of Ainsworth’s Strange Situation is that it’s reliable. For example, Bick et al. tested the inter-rater reliability of Ainsworth’s Strange Situation and found an agreement on attachment type in 94% of cases. This is a strength because it means Ainsworth’s results are valid.

  • One limitation of Ainsworth’s Strange Situation is that a fourth type of attachment was overlooked. Main and Soloman identified a fourth type of attachment (disorganised) by observing over 200 Strange Situation recordings. This attachment type is categorised by a lack of consistent patterns of behaviour (e.g. high levels of separation anxiety but avoidant on reunion). This is a limitation because it implies Ainsworth’s orginal findings are oversimplified, decreasing the internal validity.

Attachment

Describe & Evaluate Ijzendoorn & Kroonenberg’s Study on Cultural Variation in Attachment

• AO1: Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg aimed to look at the proportions of secure, insecure-avoidant and insecure-resistant attachments across a range of cultures using Ainsworth’s Strange Situation. They did this by conducting a meta-analysis and examining over 2,000 Strange Situation classifications in 8 different countries. From this, they found that in all 8 countries, secure attachments were most common. In individualistic cultures (value independence) such as the Germany, insecure-resistant attachments were under 14% whereas, in collectivist cultures (value community) such as Japan, insecure-resistant attachments were above 25%. These findings support the idea that attachment is innate.

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  • One strength of Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s study is that it’s a meta-analysis. This means the sample size is much greater, allowing results to be easily generalised. This is a strength because increases the external validity of the study.

  • However, one limitation of using meta-analyses is that the data is secondary. When using secondary data, extraneous variables cannot be controlled and the study the data was drawn from may have had different aims, meaning it won’t perfectly fit the brief of the meta-analysis. This is a limitation because it decreases the interal validity of conclusions drawn.

  • Another limitation of Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s study is that it’s ethnocentric. They used Ainsworth’s Strange Situation method which is considered ethnocentric. This is because Ainsworth’s participants were all middle-class Americans and the methodology conforms to Western societal standards when it comes to child-rearing pratices. This is a limitation because it means the study lacks cultural relativism and generaliability to other countries/cultures.

Attachment

Ryan is a 14-year-old boy who spent the first five years of his life in care. Ryan has a difficult relationship with his adoptive parents and has few friends. His recent school report described him as achieving below average in most subjects. Ryan has also recently been in trouble with the police for antisocial behaviour.

Discuss Bowlby’s Theory of Maternal Deprivation Hypothesis & Refer to Ryan

• AO1: Bowlby theorised that continuous deprivation from a mother’s emotional care causes damage to an infant. Moreover, Bowlby believed attachment has a critical period which is the first 2.5 years of life and, if deprivation occurs during this period, damage will be irreversible. This damage can be separated into two strands (poor intellectual and emotional development). Poor intellectual development is characterised by delayed intellectual develpment and abnormally low IQ whereas poor emotional development is characterised by affaectionless psychopathy - this is where one is unable to experience strong emotions like guilt towards others.

• AO2: Firstly, Ryan spent the ‘first five years of his life in care’, meaning he didn’t form an attachment during the critical period and this is further evidenced by the fact he ‘has a difficult relationship with his adoptive parents’. Ryan also shows signs of maternal deprivation as he is ‘achieving below average in most subjects’ at school, suggesting he has poor intellectual development and he’s displayed ‘antisocial behaviour’, perhaps implying he is an emotionless psychopath, evidencing poor emotional development too.

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  • One strength of Bowlby’s maternal deprivation hypothesis is that there’s pratical applications. For example, his theory had a massice impact on post-war thinking about child-rearing and how children are looked after in hospitals as visiting is now encouraged. This is a strength because it reduces the likelihood of children experiencing the effects of maternal deprivation.

  • One limitation of Bowlby’s maternal deprivation hypothesis is that it’s ethonocentric. He placed lots of emphasis on the role of the mother however, in collectivist cultures, children often have multiple caregivers who are involved in the child’s development. This is a limitation because it means Bowlby’s hypothesis lacks cultural relativism and generaliability to other countries/cultures.

Attachment

Discuss the Effects of Institutionalisation & Refer to Studies of Romanian Orphans

• AO1: Institutionalisation refers to when children grow up in institutions (e.g. orphanages) where they receive very little emotional care. There are four main effects this can have (disinhibited attachment, intellectual disability, physical underdevelopment and poor parenting). Disinhibited attachment refers to when a child is equally friendly towards familiar and unfamiliar people - this is usually a result of having multiple different caregivers during the sensitive period for attachment formation. Many institutionalised children face intellectual disability, meaning they lag behind in terms of intellectual ability. Alongside this, institutionalised children are often physically small and suffer from ‘deprivation dwarfism’. Finally, Quinton et al. found that ex-institutionalised women experienced extreme difficulty acting as parents, implying institutionalisation causes poor parenting. However, Rutter et al. invetigated these effects in 165 Romanian orphans and ultimately concluded that the effects of institutionalisation can be reversed providing adoption takes place before the age of 6 months.

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  • One strength of Rutter et al.’s study on Romanian orphans is that it has pratical applications. Their findings have resulted in many institutions improving the way children are cared for. For example, lots of orphanages now avoid having large numbers of caregivers for each child. This is a strength because it means childen growing up in institutions are less likely to form disinhibted attachments during the sensitive period for attachment formation.

  • Another strength of Rutter et al.’s study on Romanian orphans is that it had few extraneous variables. There were many orphan studies before Rutter et al.’s but often these involved children who had experiences loss or trauma before they were institutionalised. This is a strength because it means there were ultimately less confounding variables, increading the internal valditiy of the study.

  • One limitation of Rutter et al.’s study on Romanian orphans is that the conditions were so bad that results cannot be generalised to further understanding the impact of institutionalisation. For example, Romanian orphanages had poor standards of care when it came to forming any relationship with the children and levels of intellectual stimulation. This is a limitation because the unusual situation variables mean the study lacks external validity.

Psychopathology

Bob is a sixth form student who has started hearing voices in his head. The voices come often, are usually threatening and make Bob feel frightened. The voices are making it difficult for Bob to complete his homework properly and he is worried about how this may affect his chances of going to university. Bob has not told anyone about his experiences, but his parents and teachers have noticed that he appears distracted, anxious and untidy.

Outline & Evaluate Failure to Function Adequately & Deviation from Ideal Mental Health as Definitions of Abnormality & Refer to the Experiences of Bob

• AO1: Failure to function adequately refers to when one can no longer cope with the demands of everyday life (e.g. unable to hold down a job). They may engage in maladaptive behaviours (e.g. smoking) or cause others to feel discomfort. For example, depression interferes with one’s ability to get out of bed, go to work/school, complete routine tasks, etc. Deviation from ideal mental health is where one does not possess the characteristics of someone with ideal mental health. Jahoda suggests that ideal mental health involves having a positive attitude towards the self and self-actualising. For example, generalised anxiety disorder (GAD) reduces one’s ability to self-actualise because constant worry inhibits the pursuit of personal growth.

• AO2: Failure to function adequately is evident in the scenario as Bob cannot seem to ‘complete his homework properly’, implying he’s unable to function in the same manner he used to. Furthermore, ‘his parents and teachers have noticed that he appears distracted, anxious and untidy’, suggesting that his behaviour is causing discomfort to others. Deviation from ideal mental health is seen in the scenario as Bob has started ‘hearing voices’ which make him feel ‘frightened’, this reduces his ability to accurately perceive reality and therefore means he doesn’t fit into Jahoda’s idea of ideal mental health.

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  • One strength of the failure to function adequately is that there is a quantitative measure of functioning. The World Health Organisation Disability Assessment Schedule (WHODAS) is a tool used to measure one’s ability to function in various aspects of life (e.g. mental health). This is a strength because it provides a standardised and reliable method to assess abnormality across different individuals within different cultures, making diagnoses more accurate.

  • One limitation of the deviation from ideal mental health is that the criteria is very over-demanding and unrealistic. Few people, if any, consistently achieve full self-actualisation or maintain perfect mental health throughout their lives. This is a limitation because, by the definition, the majority of the population would be considered abnormal which reduces the effectiveness of this definition.

DEVIATION FROM SOCIAL NORMS - MINIMISES HARM BUT SOCIAL NORMS VARY OVER TIME AND FROM CULTURE TO CULTURE

STATISTICALLY INFREQUENCE - PRACTICAL AND OBJECTIVE BUT SOME AREN’T STATISTICALLY INFREQUENCT (E.G. 1 IN 5 HAS DEPRESSION)

Psychopathology

Discuss the Cognitive Approach to Explaining Depression

• AO1: There are two cognitive explanations of depression (Beck’s cognitive theory and Ellis’ ABC model). Beck believed that it was one’s cognition that creates vulnerability and suggested faulty information processing (a focus on the negative rather than the positive, e.g. catastrophising), negative self-schema (‘packages’ of information about one’s self which Beck believes is the origin of depressive thoughts) and the negative triad (negative view about the self, world and future). Ellis suggested that good mental health is the result of rational thinking and proposed the ABC model (activating event, belief and consequences) and musturbatory thinking (things must happen to bring one happiness).

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  • One strength of the cognitive explanation of depression is that there’s supporting evidence. For example, Clark and Beck concluded that not only were cognitive vulnerabilities more common in those with depression, they also preceded depression. This is a strength because it supports Beck’s idea that there’s an association between cognitive vulnerabilities and depression.

  • Another strength of the cognitive explanation of depression is that it has practical applications. For example, Cohen et al. concluded that assessing cognitive vulnerability allows psychologists to screen young people and identify those most at risk of developing depression. This is a strength because it allows for a deeper understanding of cognitive vulnerability which can then be applied in clinical scenarios.

  • One limitation of the cognitive explanation of depression is that it’s reductionist. For example, McGuffin et al. found that MZ twins had a higher concordance rate than DZ twins when investigating the concordance rate of depression. This is a limitation because it suggests genetic variation plays a role in one’s vulnerability to depression.

Psychopathology

Discuss the Cognitive Approach to Treating Depression

• AO1: Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) is the most commonly used treatment for depression - it aims to identify where there are negative/irrational thoughts which need to be challenged. There are two strands of CBT (Beck’s cognitive therapy and Ellis’ REBT). Beck’s cognitive therapy involves identifying thoughts in the negative triad, discussing evidence for/against these thoughts, setting homework, ‘patient as a scientist’ stage then behavioural activation. Ellis’ REBT (rational emotive behaviour therapy) involves applying the ABC model to daily life, engaging in a vigorous dispute (empirical, logical and pragmatic disputing), setting homework to prove irrational beliefs are invalid then behavioural activation.

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  • One strength of cognitive treatments for depression is that there’s supporting evidence. For example, March et al. compared CBT to antidepressant drugs and a combination of both treatments and found that, after 36 weeks, 81% of the antidepressant group and 81% of the CBT group were significantly improved. This is a strength because it proves that cognitive treatments for depression such as CBT are an effective treatment as it works just as well as drug treatments.

  • One limitation of cognitive treatments for depression is the lack of effectiveness for severe cases and for clients with learning differences. In some cases, depression can be so severe that clients cannot motivate themselves to engage with the cognitive work of CBT. Furthermore, some clients, specifically those with learning differences, may find it difficult to pay attention during therapy sessions. This is a limitation because it reduces the overall effectiveness of cognitive treatments for depression such as CBT and makes it a less accessible and universal approach to treating depression.

  • Another limitation of cognitive treatments for depression is that there are high relapse rates. For example, Shehzad et al. assessed depression in clients every month for a year following a course of CBT and found that 53% relapsed within a year. This is a limitation because it shows that cognitive treatments for depression are not effective for achieving long-term recovery.