Unit 5 Psychology Cognition

memory

the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information

recall

a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learning earlier (fill-in-the-blank test)

recognition

a measure of memory in which the person identifies items previously learned (multiple-choice test)

relearning

a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again

Hermann Ebbinghaus

showed our response speed when recalling or recognizing information indicates memory strength using nonsense syllables

randomly selected a sample of syllables, practiced them, and tested himself

encoding

the process of getting information into the memory system

storage

the process of retaining encoded information over time

retrieval

the process of getting information out of memory storage

flashbulb memory

a clear moment of an emotionally significant moment or event

parallel processing

processing many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain’s natural mode of information processing for many functions

sensory memory

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system, stored just for an instant most gets unprocessed

short-term memory

activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as digits of a phone number while calling, before the information is stored or forgotten

long-term memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system (includes knowledge, skills, and experiences)

working memory

a newer understanding of short-term memory that adds conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory (three parts-audio, visual, integration of visual and audio)

explicit memories

retention of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and “declare” (also called declarative memory

effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings

implicit memory

retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection (also called nondeclarative memory)

iconic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

echoic memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere

sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds

George Miller

proposed that we can store about seven pieces of information in short term memory

chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically

mnemonics

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

spacing effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice

testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information (also sometimes referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning)

shallow processing

encoding on a basic level, based on the structure or appearance of words

deep processing

encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention

semantic memory

explicit memory of facts and general knowledge; one of our two conscious memory systems

episodic memory

explicit memory of personally experienced events; one of our two conscious memory systems

hippocampus

a neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories - of facts and events - for storage

memory consoldiation

the neural storage of a long-term memory

Eric Kandel

deserved synaptic changes during learning in the neurons of the California sea slug, Aplysia

increased our understanding on the neural basis of learning and memory

frontal lobes and hippocampus

explicit memory formation

cerebellum and basal ganglia

implicit memory formation

amygdala

emotion - related memory formation

long-term potentiation (LTP)

an increase in a cell’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation; a neural basis for learning and memory

priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory

encoding specificity principle

the idea that cues and contexts specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping us recall it

mood-congruent memory

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent w/one’s current good or bad mood

serial position effect

our tendency to recall best the last (recency effect) and first (primary effect) items in a list

anterograde amnesia

an inability to form new memories

retrograde amnesia

an inability to retrieve information from one’s past

proactive interference

the forward-acting disruptive effect of older learning on the recall of new information

retroactive interference

the backward-acting disruptive effect of newer learning on the recall of old information

repression

in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories

reconsolidation

a process in which previously stored memories, when retrieved, are potentially altered before being stored again

misinformation effect

occurs when misleading information has distorted one’s memory of an event

source amnesia

faulty memory for now, when, or where information was learned or imagined (also called source misattribution) heart of many false memories

déja vu

that eerie sense that “i’ve experienced this before” cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience

cognition

all the mental activities associated w/ thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

concept

a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

prototype

a mental image or best example of a category, matching new items into this provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories

creativity

the ability to produce new and valuable ideas

convergent thinking

narrowing the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution

divergent thinking

expanding the number of possible problem solutions; creative thinking that diverges in different directions

Robert Sternberg

believes creativity has 5 components (well-developed knowledge, venturesome personality, imaginative thinking skills, intrinsic motivation, and a creative environment

functional fixedness

the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions

belief bias

the tendency for one’s preexisting beliefs to distort logical reasoning

algorithm

a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem, contrasts w/ the usually speedier - but also more error prone - use of heuristics

heuristic

a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgements and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than an algorithm

insight

a sudden realization of a problem’s solution; contrasts w/ strategy-based solutions

Wolfgang Köhler

discovered insight in apes

confirmation bias

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

fixation

in cognition, the inability to see a problem from a new perspective; an obstacle to problem solving

mental set

a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past (may or might not be a good thing)

Amos Tvesky and Daniel Kanneman

cognitive psychologists that did research on the representativeness and availability heuristics; showed that intuitive mental short cuts can lead even the smartest people into dumb decisions

intuition

an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted w/explicit, conscious reasoning

representive heuristic

estimating the likelihood of events in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant info

availability heuristic

estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we oresume such events are common

overconfidence

the tendency to be more confident than correct to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgements

belief perseverance

clinging to one’s initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited

framing

the way an issue is posed; how an issue is worded can significantly affect decisions and judgements

language

our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning

phoneme

in a language, the smallest distinctive sound unit

what did Skinner believe about language?

thought we can explain language development through social learning theory

Noam Chomsky

believed we acquire language too quickly for it to be learned; we have this “learning box” inside our heads that enable us to learn any human language

morpheme

in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix)

grammar

in a language, a system of lures that enables us to communicate w/ and understand others

semantics

the language’s set of rules for deriving meaning from sounds

syntax

set of rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences

babbling stage

beginning around 4 months, the stage or speech development in which an infant spontaneously uttered various sounds at first unrelated to the household language

one-word stage

the stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words

two-word stage

beginning about age 2, the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly in two-word statements

telegraphic speech

early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram - using mostly nouns and verbs

aphasia

impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca’s area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke’s area (impairing understanding)

Broca’s area

helps control language expression - an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech

Benjamin Lee Whorf

linguist, contended that “language itself shapes a [person’s] basic ideas”; communicates the idea that language determines the way we think

linguistic determinism

the strong form of Whorf’s hypothesis - that language controls the way we think and interpret the world around us

linguistic influence

the weakest form of “linguistic relativity” - the idea that language affects thoughts (thus our thinking and world view is “relative to” our cultural langauge

general intelligence

underlies all mental abilities and is measured by every task on an intelligence test

Charles Spearman

believed that people have special abilities, noted that those who score high in one area typically score higher than average in other areas

factor analysis

a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items (called factors) on a test; used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlies a person’s total score

Howard Gardner

identified eight relatively independent intelligences

savant syndrome

a condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill, such as in computation or drawing

Robert Sternberg

believes that there is more to success than traditional intelligence and that we have multiple intelligences

Sternberg’s triarchic theory

3 intelligences; a basic intelligence predicts our abilities in varied academic areas

analytical (academic problem-solving) intelligence

assessed by intelligence test, which presents well-defined problems having a single right answer

creative intelligence

demonstrated in innovative smalts: the ability to adapt to new situatons and generate novel ideas

practical intelligence

required for everyday tasks that may be poorly defined and may have multiple solutions

emotional intelligence

the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions