A normal human vagina is covered by the ______, which is composed of stratified squamous epithelial tissue.
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submucosa
Lying under the squamous mucosa is the _______, which contains an abundance of connective tissue and capillaries.
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muscularis
Below the submucosa is the _______, which is made up of smooth muscle.
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Basal Layer
In this layer, basal cells are anchored to the basement membrane that separates the squamous mucosa from the submucosa.
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Parabasal Layer
This is where cells undergo differentiation.
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Intermediate Layer
The cells are flattened and their nuclei are compressed.
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Superficial Layer
This is where the cells are fully differentiated with small and dense nuclei.
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Lugol’s iodine solution
Named after the French physician *Jean Lugol*, is originally used as an antiseptic that is applied to skin or tissue to prevent infection.
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Glycogen
is the principal storage form of glucose in animal and human cells and is found in the granules in the cytoplasm of the cells of many tissues.
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hepatocytes
In addition to squamous epithelial cells, glycogen is also found in ______, which have the highest glycogen content, as well as muscle cells.
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Lugol’s stock solution
is an aqueous solution of 5% iodine (I2) and 10% potassium iodide (KI).
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Potassium iodide
allows the iodine to be soluble in water through the formation of the triiodide ion.
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keratinizing squamous epithelial cells
Differentiated skin epithelial cells are keratinized and are classified as ________
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nonkeratinizing squamous epithelial cells
buccal and vaginal epithelial cells are ______
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Lactobacillus
It can be found in the respiratory, the gastrointestinal, and the urogenital tract of healthy humans and animals.
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Lactobacillus taxa
Are the predominant bacteria in the vagina of women of reproductive age, and they play an important role in protecting the host against invasive pathogenic organisms.
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lactic acid
Lactobacillus bacteria produce _____.
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MUC4
Encodes a mucin protein that is a major component of vaginal mucus.
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HBD1
Encodes a vaginal antimicrobial peptide.
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Menstruation
The periodic discharge of blood and the elimination of the degenerated lining of the endometrium from the uterus of nonpregnant women.
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400 times
From menarche to menopause, women may menstruate up to ______ during their reproductive age.
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Myometrium
Consists of the muscle fibers of the uterus.
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Endometrium
Consists of the simple columnar epithelium and the stroma.
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Simple columnar epithelium
Formed by single-layered elongated cells located at the apical surface of the endometrium.
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Stroma
It consists of connective tissues as well as spiral arteries.
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Spiral arteries
Are small arteries that ascend through the endometrium and form a coil-like structure, which supplies blood to the endometrium.
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Functionalis
The luminal part of the endometrium. It is the zone of cyclic changes in the endometrium and is shed during menstruation.
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Basalis
The basal part of the endometrium and is not shed during menstruation. This zone produces cells to regenerate the functionalis during the next cycle.
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repetitive physiological changes
During the uterine cycle, _______occur in the functionalis.
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menstrual phase
During the ________, the functionalis degenerates and is sloughed off from the uterine wall and bleeding occurs, known as menses.
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proliferative phase
During the _______, the functionalis begins regeneration in which the spiral arteries are proliferated.
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secretory phase,
During the ______, the spiral arteries are further developed and coiled.
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progesterone level
In the absence of pregnancy, a decrease in the ________ leads to the constriction of the spiral arteries. As a result, the functionalis becomes ischemic, leading to hypoxia.
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endometrial hemostasis
The cessation of menstrual bleeding is achieved by ______ that is initiated when injury occurs due to the shedding of the endometrium.
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Hemostasis
______ begins with platelet activation and aggregation to form platelet plugs at the site of injury.
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Thrombin
A serine protease, converts soluble fibrinogen into fibrin.
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Fibrin
A protein involved in blood clotting, aggregates with the platelet plugs and leads to the cessation of bleeding by forming blood clots, known as thrombi.
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D-dimer
A degradation product produced during fibrinolysis when cross-linked fibrin is cleaved by plasmin.
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ELISA
In ______, antibodies bind to the D-dimer antigens on the solid phase.
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Latex agglutination assays
are based on the interaction of antibodies and D-dimers that are located on carriers to form aggregates during the agglutination process.
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Immunochromatographic assays
utilize monoclonal antibodies specific to D-dimers, which have been developed recently. It is very specific, sensitive, and rapid, and can be completed within minutes.
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Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH)
An enzyme that plays an important role in glycolysis. It catalyzes the reversible reduction of pyruvate into lactate when the amount of oxygen is limited.
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A subunit
It is encoded by the LDHA gene and is primarily expressed in skeletal muscle.
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B subunit
It is encoded by the LDHB gene and is primarily expressed in cardiac muscle.
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C subunit
It is encoded by the LDHC gene, is expressed restrictively in the testes.
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peripheral blood
LDH1, 2, and 3 are the predominant forms of the isoenzymes in ______.
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menstrual blood
LDH4 and 5 are consistently the predominant isoenzymes in _______.
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Matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)
_________ genes are considered tissue-specific markers for human endometrium tissues.
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Extracellular matrix (ECM)
The extracellular space of tissue that is filled by macromolecules such as collagens, laminins, fibronectins, and proteoglycans.
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*MMP7*
is predominantly expressed in epithelial cells
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*MMP11*
is expressed in the stromal cells of the endometrium.
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MMP11 mRNA
can be detected in menstrual blood from the first to the eighth day of menstruation but it is absent in peripheral blood and vaginal secretions.
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Cytochrome P450, family 2, subfamily B, polypeptide 7, pseudogene 1.
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