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Learning
The process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviors.
Habituation
An organism’s decreasing response to a stimulus with repeated exposure to it.
Examples of Habituation:
Perfume smells: Wearing a perfume or cologne every day for several weeks to the point that you no longer notice it at all.
Nosy Neighbors: Being able to tune out the noisy neighbors in your dorm because you are so engrossed in studying.
Associative learning
Learning that certain events occur together.
The events may be 2 stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning).
Example of Associative learning:
Celebrity endorsements:
Brands pay celebrities to be in their advertisements so fans associate the brand with the beloved celebrity. The love for celebrity rubs-off as love for the product.
Stimulus - Beloved celebrity
Associated Stimulus: Car
Result - Beloved car
Stimulus
Any event or situation that evokes a response.
Cognitive learning
The acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language.
Examples of cognitive learning:
Problem-solving: Tackling challenges by applying knowledge and critical thinking.
Concept Mapping: Visually organizing and representing relationships between ideas.
Hypothesizing: Making educated guesses based on prior knowledge and observations.
Classical Conditioning
A type of learning in which one learns to link 2 or more stimuli and anticipate events.
Behaviorism
the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).
Neutral Stimulus (NS)
In classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning.
Example of NS:
Pavlov’s Bell: A bell ringing typically doesn’t cause any specific response. However, in the famous Pavlov Dog experiment, the dog came to associate the bell with food. Before conditioning, the bell is a neutral stimulus.
Unconditioned Response (UR)
in classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response (such as salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (US) (such as food in the mouth).
Unconditioned Stimulus
In classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers a response (UR).
Conditioned Response (CR)
In classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS).
Conditioned Stimulus
In classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR).
Acquisition
In classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.
higher-order conditioning
A procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus.
Example of Higher-order conditioning
An animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone. (Also called second-order conditioning.)
Extinction
The diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced.
Spontaneous Recovery
The reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response.
Generalization
The tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses.
Example of Generalization:
Larry eats at the local restaurant and gets food poisoning after eating the salad bar. After this happens, Larry gets nauseous not only seeing the salad bar at the local restaurant, but at any place that serves a salad bar.
Discrimination
In classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus.
Examples of Discrimination:
Your cat being able to tell the difference between hearing you open a bag of chips and you opening bag of cat treats.
Only ordering a dish at one restaurant because you know that other restaurants don’t offer that same menu item.
Operant Conditioning
A type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher.
Law of Effect
Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely.
Operant Chamber
In operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal’s rate of bar pressing or key pecking.
Reinforcement
In operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows.
Shaping
An operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior.
Example of shaping:
A teacher rewards a student for sitting quietly for ten minutes on Monday, fifteen minutes on Tuesday, twenty minutes on Wednesday, and thirty minutes on Thursday.
Discriminative Stimulus
In operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement).
Positive Reinforcement
Increasing behaviors by presenting positive reinforcers. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.
Example of Positive Reinforcement
A student receives praise from a teacher for completing homework, encouraging the student to continue completing assignments in the future.
Negative Reinforcement
Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: Negative reinforcement is not punishment.)
What is an example of Negative Reinforcement?
Removing a loud alarm sound when a student gets out of bed on time, which encourages the student to wake up on time in the future.
Primary Reinforcer
An innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need.
Example of Primary Reinforcer
Food, as it satisfies a biological need and is innately reinforcing.
Conditioned Reinforcer
A stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer.
What is an example of a Conditioned Reinforcer?
A coupon that can be exchanged for food, which has value because it is associated with the primary reinforcer (food).
Reinforcement Schedule
A pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced.
What is an example of a Reinforcement Schedule?
A weekly paycheck for completing work, which reinforces the behavior of working regularly.
Continuous Reinforcement
Reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs.
What is an example of Continuous Reinforcement?
A child receives praise every time they clean their room.
Partial (intermittent) reinforcement
Reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement.
What is an example of Partial (intermittent) Reinforcement?
A worker is paid based on the number of items they produce, receiving checks occasionally, which reinforces their work behavior.
Fixed-ratio schedule
fixed-ratio schedule in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses.
What is an example of a Fixed-ratio schedule?
A factory worker receives a bonus for every 10 products they produce.
Variable-ratio schedule
In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses.
What is an example of a Variable-ratio schedule?
Slot machines in a casino, where a player wins after an unpredictable number of plays.
Fixed-interval schedule
In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed.
Example of Fixed-interval schedule:
A weekly paycheck that reinforces behavior at regular time intervals, such as receiving a salary every Friday. This schedule leads to a pattern in which employees may show little effort right before their paycheck quickly increases in effort as payday approaches.
Variable-interval schedule
In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals.
What is an example of a Variable-interval schedule?
Receiving a text message from a friend at unpredictable times, which reinforces the behavior of checking your phone regularly.
Punishment
An event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows.
What is an example of punishment in psychology?
A child losing access to video games for misbehaving, which decreases the likelihood of that behavior in the future.
Respondent behavior
Behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus.
What is an example of respondent behavior?
Flinching when hearing a loud noise, which is an automatic response to the stimulus of the noise.
Operant behavior
Behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences.
Cognitive Map
A mental representation of the layout of one’s environment.
Example of Cognitive Map:
After exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map to it.
Latent learning
Learning that occurs but it is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it.
What is an example of latent learning?
A child learns how to navigate the layout of a school based on observing their environment over time, but does not demonstrate this knowledge until they need to find their way to class.
Insight
A sudden realization of a problem’s solution.
What is an example of insight in psychology?
Realizing the solution to a problem after a period of contemplation, such as understanding how to solve a math problem suddenly after considering different approaches.
Intrinsic Motivation:
A desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake.
Example of Intrinsic motivation:
A person who plays an instrument for the joy of making music rather than for external rewards.
Extrinsic Motivation
A desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment.
Example of Extrinsic Motivation
A student studies hard to earn a scholarship, motivated by the promise of financial aid.
Coping
Alleviating stress using emotional, cognitive, or behavioral methods.
What is an example of coping in psychology?
A person practices deep breathing and meditation to alleviate stress after a challenging day at work.
Problem-focused coping
Attempting to alleviate stress directly - by changing the stressor directly - by changing the stressor or the way we interact with that stressor.
What is an example of problem-focused coping?
A student who is stressed about upcoming exams creates a study schedule to organize their study time and reduce anxiety.
Emotion-focused coping
Attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs related to one’s stress reaction.
Example of Emotion-focused coping:
someone who is feeling overwhelmed by a stressful work deadline, deciding to take a relaxing bath, listen to calming music, or practice deep breathing exercises to manage their anxiety rather than directly addressing the workload itself
Learned helplessness
The hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events.
Example of learned helplessness:
In a two-phase study, participants were randomly assigned to either group A or group B. All participants were subjected to a series of irritating air puffs directed at the face. In the first phase of the study, participants in group A pressed a button that stopped the air puffs. Participants in group B pressed a button that had no effect on the air puffs. In the second phase of the study, both groups had buttons that, if pressed, would stop the air puffs.
External locus of control
The perception that chance or outside forces beyond our personal control determine our fate.
Example of External Locus of control:
someone who believes they failed a test because the questions were "too tricky" or "unfair" rather than acknowledging their own study habits as the primary factor, essentially attributing their outcome to external forces beyond their control.
Self-control
The ability to control impulses and delay short-term gratification for greater long-term rewards.
Example of Self-control:
Diet control: Choosing to eat a healthy salad instead of a tempting dessert when trying to lose weight.
Observational Learning
Learning by observing others. Also called social learning.
Example of Observational Learning:
a child learning to tie their shoes by watching an adult carefully perform the steps, then later attempting to replicate those actions themselves; essentially, learning by observing and imitating the behavior of another person.
Modeling
The process of observing and imitating a specific behavior.
Example of modeling:
Bobo Doll Experiment -
Children were shown a video of an adult model acting aggressively towards an inflatable clown doll called Bobo. The children were then placed in a room with Bobo and other toys, and their behavior was observed
Children who saw the adult model act aggressively were more likely to act aggressively themselves. They imitated the adult's behavior, such as kicking, hitting, and throwing the doll. Boys were more likely to imitate the aggressive behavior than girls.
Mirror Neurons
Frontal lobe neurons that some scientists believe fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain’s mirroring of another’s action may enable imitation and empathy.
Prosocial Behavior
Positive, constructive, and helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior.
Example of Prosocial behavior:
a student offering to tutor a classmate who is struggling with a subject, volunteering at a local charity, donating blood, or simply comforting a friend who is upset - essentially any action intended to benefit another person without expecting personal gain in return.
Ivan Pavlov
His early twentieth-century experiments—now psychology’s most famous research—are classics, and the phenomenon he explored we justly call classical conditioning.
Also created the concept of behaviorism
His most famous experiment was “Pavlov’s dogs”
John B. Watson
Watson’s (1913) idea that human emotions and behaviors, though biologically influenced, are mainly a bundle of conditioned responses.
In Watson and Rayner’s experiments, “Little Albert” learned to fear a white rat after repeatedly experiencing a loud noise as the rat was presented.
B.F. Skinner
Created the “skinner box”
Created the concept of ‘reinforcement’ and its effects
Edward Thorndike
psychologist Edward L. Thorndike (1874–1949) called the law of effect: Rewarded behavior is likely to recur.
His work helped Skinner establish his future findings about behavior control.
John Garcia
John Garcia was among those who challenged the prevailing idea that all associa- tions can be learned equally well. While researching the effects of radiation on labora- tory animals, Garcia and Robert Koelling (1966) noticed that rats began to avoid drink- ing water from the plastic bottles in radiation chambers. Could classical conditioning be the culprit? Might the rats have linked the plastic - tasting water (a CS) to the sickness (UR) triggered by the radiation (US)?
Robert Rescorla
Edward Tolman
Evidence of cognitive processes has also come from studying rats in mazes, including classic studies by Edward Tolman
Albert Bandura
the pioneer researcher of observational learning
Created “The Bobo doll” experiment
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