Unit 1 - AP Psych

Information processing model

compares our mind to a computer.

Encoded

when our sensory receptors send impulses that are registered by neurons in our brain, similar to getting electronic information into our computer’s CPU (central processing unit) by keyboarding.

Attention

is the mechanism by which we restrict information.

Shallow processing

we use structural encoding of superficial sensory information that emphasizes the physical characteristics, such as lines and curves, of the stimulus as it first comes in.

Deep processing

occurs when we attach meaning to information and create associations between the new memory and existing memories (elaboration).

Semantic encoding

associated with deep processing, emphasizes the meaning of verbal input.

Atkinson–Shiffrin three-stage model of memory

describes three different memory systems characterized by time frames

Sensory memory

visual or iconic memory that completely represents a visual stimulus lasts for less than a second, just long enough to ensure that we don’t see gaps between frames in a motion picture.

Auditory or echoic memory

lasts for about 4 seconds, just long enough for us to hear a flow of information.

Selective attention

focusing of awareness on a specific stimulus in sensory memory, determines which very small fraction of information perceived in sensory memory is encoded into short-term memory.

Automatic processing

is unconscious encoding of information about space, time, and frequency that occurs without interfering with our thinking about other things.

Parallel processing

a natural mode of information processing that involves several information streams simultaneously.

Effortful processing

is encoding that requires our focused attention and conscious effort.

Short-term memory (STM)

can hold a limited amount of information for about 30 seconds unless it is processed further.

Chunk

can be a word rather than individual letters or a date rather than individual numbers.

Working memory model

is an active three-part memory system that temporarily holds information and consists of a phonological loop, visuospatial working memory, and the central executive.

Explicit memory

also called declarative memory, is our LTM of facts and experiences we consciously know and can verbalize.

Procedural/implicit memories

are tasks that we perform automatically without thinking, such as tying our shoelaces or swimming.

Prospective memory

is our memory to perform a planned action or remembering to perform that planned action.

Long-term memory (LTM)

is the relatively permanent and practically unlimited capacity memory system into which information from short-term memory may pass.

Implicit memory

also called non-declarative memory, is our LTM for skills and procedures to do things affected by previous experience without that experience being consciously recalled.

Hierarchies

are systems in which concepts are arranged from more general to more specific classes.

Concepts

can be simple or complex.

Prototypes

which are the most typical examples of the concept.

Semantic networks

are more irregular and distorted systems than strict hierarchies, with multiple links from one concept to others.

Neural network

computer models are based on neuronlike systems, which are biological rather than artificially contrived computer codes; they can learn, adapt to new situations, and deal with imprecise and incomplete information.

Long-term potentiation (or LTP)

involves an increase in the efficiency with which signals are sent across the synapses within neural networks of long-term memories.

Flashbulb memory

a vivid memory of an emotionally arousing event, is associated with an increase of adrenal hormones triggering release of energy for neural processes and activation of the amygdala and the hippocampus involved in emotional memories.

Anterograde amnesia

the inability to put new information into explicit memory; no new semantic memories are formed.

Retrograde amnesia

involves memory loss for a segment of the past, usually around the time of an accident, such as a blow to the head.

Hermann Ebbinghaus

experimentally investigated the properties of human memory using lists of meaningless syllables.

Serial position effect

When we try to retrieve a long list of words, we usually recall the last words and the first words best, forgetting the words in the middle.

Primacy effect

refers to better recall of the first items, thought to result from greater rehearsal Recency effect

Retrieval cues

can be other words or phrases in a specific hierarchy or semantic network, context, and mood or emotions.

Priming

is activating specific associations in memory either consciously or unconsciously.

Distributed practice

spreading out the memorization of information or the learning of skills over several sessions, facilitates remembering.

Massed practice

cramming the memorization of information or the learning of skills into one session.

Mnemonic devices

or memory tricks when encoding information, these devices will help us retrieve concepts.

Method of loci

uses association of words on a list with visualization of places on a familiar path.

Peg word mnemonic

requires us to first memorize a scheme.

Context-dependent memory

Our recall is often better when we try to recall information in the same physical setting in which we encoded it, possibly because along with the information, the environment is part of the memory trace

Mood congruence

aids retrieval.

State-dependent

things we learn in one internal state are more easily recalled when in the same state again.

Forgetting

may result from failure to encode information, decay of stored memories, or an inability to access information from LTM.

Relearning

is a measure of retention of memory that assesses the time saved compared to learning the first time when learning information again.

tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon

Sometimes we know that we know something but can’t pull it out of memory.

Interference

Learning some items may prevent retrieving others, especially when the items are similar.

Proactive interference

when you have TROUBLE REMEMBERING something NEW because of older memories. 

Older memories interfere with the retrieval of newer memories

pro=new/future, interference=being interfered with (not necessarily doing the interfering) → new is being interfered with.

Retroactive interference

when you have TROUBLE REMEMBERING something OLD because of newer memories.

• Newer memories interfere with the retrieval of older memories

• retro=old,interference=being interfered with → old is being interfered with.

Misinformation effect

occurs when we incorporate misleading information into our memory of an event.

Misattribution error

Forgetting what really happened, or distortion of information at retrieval, can result when we confuse the source of information—putting words in someone else’s mouth—or remember something we see in the movies or on the Internet as actually having happened.

semantics

The set of rules that enables us to derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences

Personality

involves consistency in behavior over a wide range of situations.