Unit 0 - Intro to Psychological Science Practices

psychology

scientific study of the behavior and mental processes of humans and other animals

behavior

any observable and measurable action taken by a person or other animal (anything a person/animal does)

mental processes

internal, subjective experiences inferred from behavior (sensation, perceptions, dreams, thoughts, beliefs, and feelings)

theory

explanation using an integrated set of principles that organize observations and predicts behavior and events

hypothesis

a testable prediction, often implied by a theory

case study

one individual or group studied in hopes of revealing universal principles

meta-analysis

type of research that analyzes data from multiple previous studies

naturalistic observation

observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate or control the situation

experiment

only research method that forms cause and effect relationships

independent variable

variable being manipulated

dependent variable

outcome being measured

experimental group

subjects receiving the treatment

control/placebo group

subjects not receiving treatment

random assignment

assignment of participants to experimental and control groups by chance, minimizing preexisting differences between the groups

random sample

each person in a population has equal chances of being chosen for the study

representative sample

group being studied reflects the larger population

The Placebo Effect

change in dependent variable due to belief in independent variable

correlation

measure of extent to which 2 factors may vary together and how well they predict one another

positive correlation

2 sets of data tend to rise and fall together

negative correlation

1 set of data rises while the other falls

correlation coefficient

statistical index of relationship between 2 variables

scatterplot

graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of 2 variables

illusory correlation

perceiving a relationship where none exists/perceiving a stronger-than-actual relationship

operational definition

carefully worded statements of exact procedures (operations) used in a research study

confounding variables

factor other than the factor being studied that might influence a study’s results

sampling bias

flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample

participant bias

(un)consciously behaving in a way to ensure research outcome fits expectations that the subject perceives the researcher wants to find

experimenter bias

(un)consciously conducts research to ensure outcome fits expectations

quantitative data

numbers

qualitative data

categorical results

descriptive statistics

numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups

inferential statistics

numerical data that allows one to generalize/infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population

histogram

pie chart

mean

average of a data set

median

score found at the exact middle of a data set

mode

most occurring value in a data set

range

difference between the highest and lowest values of a data set

standard deviation

measurement of the amount of variation in a data set

distribution

shape of the graph when all values are plotted

positive distribution

when data is skewed to the left

negative distribution

when data is skewed to the right

normal curve

when the graph has a symmetrical distribution

statistical significance

how likely it is that the resulting data occurred by chance

p-value

measure of statistical significance

institutional review

ensures ratified involving human and/or animal participants are conducted ethically and responsibly

informed consent

voluntary agreement given by a competent adult to participate in a study

informed assent

agreement to participate given by individuals not able to give informed consent (IC from a legal guardian also needed)

protection from harm

participants must not be exposed to unnecessary physical or psychological risk

confidentiality/anonymity

no personal information relating to the participants is shared

necessary deception

intentionally misleading or withholding information when research demands it

proper debriefing

researchers must explain the true purpose of the study and reveal any deception that was used and why it was necessary

structuralism

early perspective focused on identifying elements of thought and the mind

functionalism

early perspective focused on the purpose of elements

behavioral approach

focus on what can be measured, counted, and recorded (reflexes and behaviors)

cognitive approach

focus on thoughts

psychodynamic approach

focus on the unconscious

biological approach

the mind is what the brain and body do

humanistic approach

optimistic focus on each person reaching their full potential

sociocultural approach

society and culture influence our behavior

evolutionary approach

focus on purpose and aspects of humanity that benefit reproduction and the continuation of the human species