Methodology

Psychology

The scientific study of behavior and mental processes of individuals and their influences from physical state, mental state, and environment.

Theory

An explanation for a psychological phenomenon; a statement summarizing and organizing human behavior.

Anecdotal Data

Evidence collected in an informal manner, heavily reliant on personal experience.

Empirical Data

Evidence collected via the scientific method, based on observation or experimentation.

TEACUP

A mnemonic for evaluating theories: Testable, Empirical support, Application, Construct Validity, Unbiased, Predicts Behavior.

Independent Variable

The variable manipulated by the experimenter.

Dependent Variable

The variable measured by the researcher, assumed to change due to the independent variable.

Controlled Variables

Variables kept constant to avoid influencing the relationship between the IV and DV.

Standardized Procedure

Directions given to participants in an experiment that are exactly the same.

Random Allocation

Participants are randomly assigned to conditions to avoid sampling bias.

Experimental Group

The group that receives the manipulation of the independent variable.

Control Group

The group that remains constant and serves as a reference point.

Operationalizing a Variable

Defining and measuring variables for quantifiable data collection.

Lab Experiment

An experiment where an IV is manipulated and a DV is measured under controlled conditions.

True Experiment

An experiment conducted under highly controlled conditions with randomly assigned participants.

Field Experiment

An experiment conducted in a natural setting with less control over variables.

Quasi Experiment

An experiment without manipulating the IV and with no random assignment of participants.

Natural Experiment

An experiment resulting from a naturally occurring event.

Null Hypothesis

States there will be no significant relationship between the two variables studied.

Alternate Hypothesis

Predicts a difference between two conditions.

Extraneous Variable

An uncontrolled variable influencing the results of an experiment.

Internal Validity

Accuracy of a study in measuring the effect of the IV on the DV.

Demand Characteristics

Participants change their behavior based on their interpretation of the study's aim.

Expectancy Effect

Participants act a certain way due to their expectations of outcomes.

Screw-You Effect

Participants try to undermine the study's credibility after guessing its hypothesis.

Social Desirability Effect

Participants behave in a socially acceptable manner because they know they are being watched.

Reactivity

Participants act differently because they are aware they are observed.

Order Effects

Changes in responses due to the order of conditions presented.

Fatigue Effect

Participants' boredom or exhaustion affecting results.

Practice Effect

Improvement from participants repeating the task multiple times.

Filler Task

A task to clear mental palette and control for interference effects.

Researcher Bias

Influence of researchers' beliefs on the outcome of the research.

Confirmation Bias

Researchers interpreting data to confirm pre-existing beliefs.

P-Hacking

Researchers search for patterns in data without a prior hypothesis.

Publication Bias

Only studies with results are published.

Researcher Triangulation

Using multiple researchers to collect or analyze data to reduce bias.

Double-Blind Control

Participants and researchers are unaware of group (experimental vs control) assignments.

Construct Validity

How well a test measures the concept it is designed to evaluate.

External Validity

Extent to which study results generalize to other situations/people.

Population Validity

Extent to which results generalize to the larger population from which the sample was drawn.

Ecological Validity

Can results apply to real-world situations and to what extent?

Correlational Studies

Data collection showing a relationship between two variables but an experiment cannot be carried out.

Positive Correlation

Both variables increase or decrease together.

Negative Correlation

One variable increases while the other decreases.

Bidirectional Ambiguity

Uncertainty about the direction of correlation.

Target Population

The group psychologists aim to describe or understand.

Sampling Bias

A sample that is non-representative of the target population.

Self-Selected Sampling

Participants sign up for a study, often leading to lower drop-out rates. (also known as volunteer sampling) (strength: less likely to drop out; Weakness: low pop validity)

Opportunity Sampling

Using a pre-existing sample for study, often homogenous. (strength: convenient; Weakness: low pop validity)

Random Sampling

Everyone in the target population has an equal chance of being chosen. (strength: high pop validity; Weakness: expensive, inefficient, may not accurately represent subgroups.)

Purposive Sampling

Sampling people with very specific characteristics. (Strength: high population validity; Weakness: hard to find participants)

Snowball Sampling

Participants help find other participants. (strength: more trust/pop validity; Weakness: small sample size)

Stratified Sampling

Sample reflecting sub-groups within a target population. (strength: high population validity; Weakness: difficult to define subgroups)

Independent Samples Design

Each participant is placed in only one condition of the experiment and different participants are used for each condition. (strengths: no risk of order effects. quick and easy to administer as participants don’t need to be exposed to multiple conditions; Weakness: risk of participant variability, requires more participants to obtain reliable data ).

Repeated Measures Design

Same participants take part in all conditions of an experiment. (strengths: controls for participant variability since the same individuals are used in all conditions. requires fewer participants compared to independent samples; Weakness: risk of order effects (eg. practice, fatigue) which may bias results unless counterbalancing is used. participants may guess the purpose of the experiment, leading to demand characteristics. )

Matched Pairs Design

Participants paired based on similar characteristics, with one participant from each pair assigned to different experimental conditions. (strength: reduces participant variability as pairs are matched on key characteristics and no risk of order effects since participants are only in one condition; Weakness: matching pairs can be time-consuming and difficult. It’s nearly impossible to perfectly match pairs, which may introduce confounding variables.)

Concurrent Conditions

Multiple conditions tested simultaneously by researchers.

Counterbalancing

One group starts with condition A, another with condition B.

Retrospective Study

Study asking participants about past behavior.

Prospective Study

Researches measure a variable at the beginning, observing its effects over time.

Longitudinal Research

Repeated observations of the same variables over long periods.

Cross-Sectional Research

Analyzes data from a population at a specific point in time.

Ethical Considerations

Guidelines protecting research participants and professionals. (necessary to ensure the integrity - and thus validity - of the data).

Informed Consent

Consent obtained from all participants prior to study.

Anonymity

Participants' data remains anonymous.

Right to Withdraw

Participants can withdraw from the study at any time.

Deception

Must be justified and not harm participants.

Undue Stress and Harm

No excessive stress or harm should come to participants.

Debriefing

Follow-up explaining the experiment and revealing deceptions.

Qualitative Research

Research interested in how participants explain their everyday experiences.

Inductive Research

Research approach where variables are not defined in advance.

Deductive Research

Uses a hypothesis tested against empirical evidence.

Triangulation in Research

Combining different methods to collect richer data. ( method - using multiple methods, data - using multiple data sources, researchers - having multiple researchers observe)

Covert Observation

Observations performed without participants' knowledge.

Ouvert Observation

Observations conducted with participants' awareness.

Lab Observation

Observation taking place in a controlled environment.

Naturalistic Observation

Observation occurring in a natural setting.

Non-Participant Observation

Researcher observes the group from outside.

Participant Observation

Researcher becomes part of the group being studied.

Field Notes

Notes taken during the occurrence of observations.

Event Sampling

Researcher notes behavior only when it occurs.

Point Sampling

Researcher notes behavior of each participant before moving on.

Time Sampling

Researcher notes behavior at regular time intervals.

Inter-Observer Reliability

Multiple researchers observe simultaneously to avoid selective perception.

Inductive Content Analysis

Qualitative method identifying patterns/themes directly from data.

Higher-Order Themes

Broader categories summarizing several smaller categories.

Unstructured Interview

No set questions; flows like a conversation.

Structured Interview

Predefined questions asked in a specific order.

Semi-Structured Interview

Set of open-ended questions allowing for focused responses.

Focus Group

A group interview setting.

Interview Schedule

Structured plan ensuring consistency across interviews.

Interviewer Effects

Influences on responses caused by the interviewer's characteristics.

Descriptive Questions

Questions prompting detailed descriptions of experiences.

Structural Questions

Questions aimed at understanding organization of knowledge.

Contrast Questions

Questions asking participants to differentiate concepts.

Evaluative Questions

Questions prompting judgments or preferences.

Verbatim

Exact and precise wording.

Post-modern Transcripts

Transcripts capturing words and non-verbal cues.

Likert Scale

A question using a 5 or 7 point scale measuring attitudes.

intrinsic vs instrumental

Intrinsic: often focused on solving a problem or better understanding a specific case (applies to one)

Instrumental:the goal is to draw conclusions that may be applied outside of that original case (applies to many)