Methodology

What is psychology?

Psychology is the scientific study of the behavior and mental processes of individuals and how it is affected by an organism's physical state, mental state, and environment.

Scientific psychology challenges our existing beliefs and seeks to deepen our understanding of human behavior.

It investigates assumptions and theories using empirical methods (data collection and analysis)

There is verification of evidence/reliability of research

There is publication of research results in journals and peer reviews.

What is a theory?

An explanation for a psychological phenomenon. It is a statement used to summarize, organize, and explain human behavior. Most theories are built on concepts

Anecdotal vs Empirical data

Anecdotal data: evidence collected in a casual or informal manner and relying heavily or entirely on personal experience.

Empirical data: evidence collected through the scientific method - based on observation and/or experimentation.

What does it mean to evaluate a theory? What is TEACUP?

A theory must describe behavior and make predictions about future behaviors. To evaluate it is to assess the validity and usefulness of it as well as see the extent to which it helps with our understanding of human behavior.

TEACUP is a mnemonic used to help evaluation Theories

T: Testable - a good theory has to be falsifiable. If we cannot test it, it is not a good theory.

E: Empirical support - a good theory has evidence to support it. The evidence is not anecdotal in nature. Good empirical support is not from a highly artificial situation and it is reliable, that is the evidence can be replicated.

A: Application - a good theory can be applied to many different situations or it improves a very specific behavior.

C: Construct Validity - a good theory makes sure that its variables are clearly defined so that they can be reliably measured.

U: Unbiased - a good theory does not show bias toward a gender or culture.

P: Predicts Behavior - a good theory does not just describe what is happening, it predicts behavior. If a theory simply labels behaviors but does not predict when or why a person might demonstrate that behavior with any reliability then the theory has low predictive validity.

Evaluate the “Cute Aggression” Study

Mostly empirical evidence + a bit of anecdotal evidence to support their hypothesis

The hypothesis had potential but their approach needed work and they needed a bigger sample size.

Vocab set

Independent variable: the variable that is manipulated by the experimenter

Dependent variable: the variable that is measured by the researcher. It is assumed that this variable changes as a result of the manipulation of the independent variable

Controlled Variables: variables that are kept constant in order to avoid influencing the relationship between the IV and DV.

Standardized procedure: the idea that directions given to participants during an experiment are exactly the same. This is the most basic form of control for a study.

Random Allocation: In a true experiment, participants are randomly allocated to conditions in order to avoid sampling bias.

Experimental vs Controlled: the experimental group receives the manipulation of the independent variable and the control group stays constant and if used as a reference point.

What does it mean to operationalize a variable?

It involves clearly defining and measuring variables in a way that allows researchers to collect and analyze quantifiable data

Research/Experiment Methods

Lab Experiment: an IV is manipulated and a DV is measured under controlled conditions. Participants are randomly allocated into conditions.

A True Experiment: an experiment done under highly controlled conditions with randomly allocated participants

Field Experiment: an experiment done in a natural setting. There is less control over variables.

Quasi Experiment: no IV is manipulated and participants are not randomly allocated to conditions. (instead it is their traits that set them apart)

Natural Experiment: an experiment that is the result of a ‘naturally occurring event.”

Types of hypothesis

Null: states that there will be no significant relationship between two variables being studied.

Experimental/Alternate/Research: predicts that there will be a difference between the two conditions.

Vocab Set

Extraneous Variable: an uncontrolled variable that influences the results of an experiment.

Internal Validity: how much a study accurately measures the effect of the Iv on the DV.

Demand Characteristics: Participants form an interpretation of the aim of the study and (sub)consciously change their behavior to fit that interpretation.

Expectancy Effect: Participant acts a certain way because he/she expects a certain outcome.

Screw-You Effect: Participants attempt to figure out the researchers’ hypothesis, but only to destroy the study’s credibility.

Social Desirability Effect: Participants act in a way they deem socially acceptable because they know they are watched.

Reactivity: Participants simply act differently because they know they are being watched.

Order effects: Changes in participants' responses that result from the order in which the experimental conditions are presented.

Fatigue Effect: participants get tired/bored which may affect results

Practice Effect: Participants improve simply because they’ve repeated the task multiple times.

Filler Task: helps clear mental palette and controls for interference effects.

Researcher Bias: beliefs/opinions of researcher that influence the outcome of the research

Confirmation Bias: researcher searches/interprets data in a way that confirms a pre-existing belief.

P-hacking: Researcher tries to find patterns in data without first positing a specific hypothesis.

Publication Bias: only studies with results are published

Researcher Triangulation: using multiple researchers to collect or analyze data to reduce bias and improve reliability.

Double-Blind Control: participants and researchers are unaware of which group of participants are in the experimental or control group.

Construct Validity: how well a test measures the concept it was designed to evaluate.

External Validity: The extent to which the results of a study can be generalized to other situations/people.

Population Validity: the extent to which results can be generalized to the larger population from which the sample was drawn.

Ecological Validity: can the results be applied to real-world situations and to what extent?

Correlational Studies

When an experiment cannot be carried out but data is collected which shows a relationship between the two variables.

Positive correlation: Both variables increase or decrease in the same fashion (x increases and y increases or x decreases and y decreases).

Negative correlation: one variable increases while the other decreases and vice versa.

Bidirectional Ambiguity: direction of the correlation is unknown.

Sampling

Psychologists take a sample from a population. Often psychologists talk about a target population. This is the group of people that they want to describe or understand.

Sampling bias: a sample non-representative of the target population

Self-selected sampling: also known as volunteer sampling. Participants sign up for a study and are less likely to drop out

Strength: less likely to drop out; Weakness: low population validity

Opportunity sampling: using a pre-existing sample (ex - Mr.Smith’s english 9 class). Groupings tend to be homogenous but not very representative of target population

Strength: more readily available/convenient; Weakness: low population validity

Random Sampling: everyone in the target population has the same probability of being chosen

Strength: High population validity; Weakness: expensive, inefficient, may not accurately represent sub-groups.

Purposive Sampling: a sample of people with very specific characteristics

Strength: High population validity; Weakness: hard to find participants

Snowball Sampling: also known as network sampling. Current participants help look for other participants.

Strength: more trust/population validity; Weakness: small sample size

Stratified sampling: attempts to make a sample that reflects the sub-groups within a target population.

Strength: High Population Validity; Weakness: difficult to define subgroups.

Independent Samples Design

Definition: Each participant is placed into only one condition of the experiment, and different participants are used for each condition.

Strengths: No risk of order effects (e.g., fatigue or practice). Quick and easy to administer as participants don’t need to be exposed to multiple conditions.

Limitations: Risk of participant variability (differences between groups may affect results). Requires more participants to obtain reliable data.

Repeated Measures Design

Definition: The same participants take part in all conditions of the experiment.

Strengths: Controls for participant variability since the same individuals are used in all conditions. Requires fewer participants compared to independent samples.

Limitations: Risk of order effects (e.g., practice, fatigue), which may bias results unless counterbalancing is used. Participants may guess the purpose of the experiment, leading to demand characteristics.

Matched Pairs Design

Definition: Participants are paired based on similar characteristics, with one participant from each pair assigned to different experimental conditions.

Strengths: Reduces participant variability as pairs are matched on key characteristics. No risk of order effects since participants are only in one condition.

Limitations: Matching participants can be time-consuming and difficult. It’s nearly impossible to perfectly match participants, which may introduce confounding variables.

Concurrent Conditions: researchers test multiple conditions at the same time

Counterbalancing: one group of participants start with condition A, the other with condition B.

Research and Time

If a study is retrospective it means that the researcher is asking participants about past behavior (think retro styles from the past)

In a Prospective study, the researcher measures a variable at the beginning of a study and watches the effect of this variable over time.

When a study involves repeated observations of the same variables over long periods, it is referred to as Longitudinal Research.

Cross sectional research analyzes data collected from a population at a specific point of time.

What are Ethical Considerations? What is CARDUD?

Ethical considerations are guidelines/rules to protect research participants as well as the psychology professionals performing the research. They're necessary to ensure the integrity—and thus, validity—of the conclusive data.

C: Consent - Informed consent must be obtained from all participants.

A: Anonymity - The participants’ data should remain anonymous. You can expand on the sensitivity of the data.

R: Right to Withdraw - participants have the right to withdraw from he study at any time.

D: Deception - Deception must be Justified and must not harm the participants.

U: Undue Stress and Harm - no undue stress or harm to the participants.

D: Debriefing - Debriefing must be carried out to explain the experiment and reveal any deception.

There are many situations where experiments are ethically or practically impossible to carry out. In these situations, psychologists often turn to correlational studies - research that simply measures the association between variables without actively manipulating any of the variables.

Qualitative research

Qualitative researchers are interested in how people explain their everyday experiences, and therefore the research takes place in natural settings.

Qualitative research projects are normally guided by one or more research questions.

The goal of qualitative research is not to identify cause and effect relationships, but rather to describe the meanings attributed to events by the research participants themselves.

Vocab Set - Case Studies

Inductive: researchers do not normally define variables in advance because they think that these are more likely to express the researcher’s ideas than the participants. They are more interested in how people experience situations and use research questions

Deductive: Uses a hypothesis (often derived from a theory) that is tested against empirical evidence so that it can either be accepted or rejected.

Triangulation

Method: Combine different research methods in a study in order to collect richer data

Data: using evidence from different types of data sources such as primary and secondary research or interviews, documents, public records, photographs, and observations.

Intrinsic: often focused on solving a problem or better understanding a specific case (only applies to one)

Instrumental: The goal is to draw conclusions that may be applied outside of that original case. (can be applied to many)

Theoretical Generalization: results of single case studies can also be generalized to existing theories but not to populations.

Vocab Set - Observations

Covert vs. Ouvert: observations that are performed with the knowledge of the participants are ouvert, those done under-cover are covert.

Lab vs. Naturalistic: Observations may take place either in a lab or in a natural environment. The researcher may simply watch natural behavior without manipulating any variables or the researcher may add a stimulus in order to see how it affects behavior.

Non-participant vs. Participant: In a non-participant observation the researcher is observing participants from outside the group, in a participant observation the researcher becomes part of the group.

Field Notes: notes taken by researcher as observation is occurring

Event Sampling: researcher makes a note only when they observe the behavior being studied

Point Sampling: the researcher makes note of the behavior of each participant and then moves onto the next participant.

Time Sampling: a researcher makes note of the behavior of the sample at a regular time interval.

Inter-observer Reliability: When multiple researchers observe the sample at the same time to avoid selective perception.

Inductive Content Analysis: Inductive content analysis is a qualitative research method used to identify patterns, themes, or categories within data. It involves breaking down raw data, such as interviews or open-ended survey responses, into smaller segments, then grouping similar ideas or points into broader categories. This process is "inductive" because the themes emerge directly from the data rather than being predetermined.

Higher-Order Themes: Higher-order themes are broader categories that summarize several smaller, specific categories (called lower-order themes). They are the "big picture" insights that emerge from organizing and analyzing data. For example, in a study about stress, lower-order themes like "work pressure" and "family expectations" might be grouped into a higher-order theme called "external stressors."

Vocab Set - Interviews

Unstructured: do not have a set of questions to be asked and often flow like a normal conversation.

Structured: The interview schedule states exactly what questions should be asked, as well as the order of the questions (highly controlled)

Semi-Structured: involves a set of open-ended questions that permits the respondent to answer more freely, while maintaining the focus of the interview

Focus Group: Group Interview

Interview Schedule: A structured plan or list of questions used by a researcher to ensure consistency across interviews and have comparable data.

Interviewer Effects: Influences on participants’ responses caused by the interviewees characteristics, behavior, or tone (may lead to bias).

Descriptive Questions: Questions that ask participants to describe experiences, actions, or settings in detail (helps understand perspective)

Structural Questions: Questions aimed at understanding the organization of a participant's knowledge or thoughts on a topic.

Contrast Questions: Questions that ask participants to compare or differentiate between two concepts or experiences.

Evaluative Questions: Questions that prompt participants to express judgments, values, ore preferences

Verbatim: exact, precise wording.

Post-modern Transcripts: Transcripts that capture not only words but also non verbal cues (like pauses and tone)

Vocab Set - Survey

A way of collecting information from a large and dispersed group of people.

Likert Scale: A question that uses a 5 or 7 point scale, sometimes referred to as a satisfaction scale, that ranges from one extreme attitude to another.