Unit 2: Cognition

apparent movement

The perception of motion when none actually exists

attention

The cognitive process of selectively focusing on specific information

binocular depth cues

Visual information taken in by two eyes that enable depth perception

bottom-up processing

Perception based on the physical features of the stimulus

change blindness

Failure to notice significant changes in one's environment

closure

The tendency to perceive a complete image even when information is missing

cocktail party effect

The ability to focus on one auditory source in a noisy environment

convergence

In psychology, convergence refers to how the brain combines different sensory information — like what we see, hear, and feel — to understand and interpret our surroundings

gestalt psychology

A psychological approach that emphasizes that we often perceive the whole rather than the sum of the parts

inattentional blindness

Failure to notice an unexpected stimulus in plain sight when attention is focused elsewhere

interposition

A monocular cue where one object partially covers another, indicating depth

linear perspective

A depth cue that makes parallel lines appear to converge with distance

monocular depth cues

Depth cues that require only one eye

perceptual set

A predisposition to perceive things in a certain way

proximity

The tendency to group objects that are close to each other

relative clarity

A depth cue whereby objects that appear hazier are perceived as being further away

relative height

A depth cue where objects higher in our field of vision are perceived as farther away

relative size

A depth cue where smaller objects are perceived as farther away

retinal disparity

A binocular cue for perceiving depth by comparing images from both eyes

schema

A cognitive framework that helps organize and interpret information

selective attention

The focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus

similarity

The tendency to group objects that are similar

texture gradient

A depth cue where closer objects have a more detailed texture

top-down processing

Perception driven by cognition

accommodation (schemas)

Adjusting existing cognitive schemas to incorporate new information

algorithms

Step-by-step procedures for solving problems

assimilation

Incorporating new experiences into existing schemas

availability heuristic

Estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory

concept

A mental grouping of similar objects, events, or people

convergent thinking

The ability to give the correct answer to standard questions

creativity

The ability to produce novel and valuable ideas

divergent thinking

Thinking that produces many solutions to the same problem

executive functions

Higher-order cognitive processes involved in goal-directed behavior

framing

The way an issue is posed can affect decisions and judgments

functional fixedness

The tendency to perceive the functions of objects as fixed

Gambler's fallacy

The belief that future probabilities are altered by past events

heuristics

Simple, efficient rules of thumb that help make decisions

mental set

A tendency to approach problems using a mindset that has worked previously

priming

The activation of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response

prototypes

Best examples of a concept

representativeness heuristic

Judging the likelihood of things based on how well they match prototypes

schemas

Mental structures that help organize knowledge

Sunk-cost fallacy

the phenomenon whereby a person is reluctant to abandon a strategy or course of action because they have invested heavily in it, even when it is clear that abandonment would be more beneficial.

automatic processing

Unconscious encoding of incidental information

central executive

The part of working memory that directs attention and processing

deep encoding

Encoding information semantically, based on its meaning

echoic memory

A momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli

effortful processing

Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

encoding

The processing of information into the memory system

episodic memory

Memory of specific events in one's life

explicit memory

Memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare

iconic memory

A momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli

implicit memory

Memory without conscious recall

levels of processing model (structural, phonemic, semantic)

A model suggesting that memory retention depends on the depth of processing

long-term potentiation

a process by which synaptic connections between neurons become stronger with frequent activation

multi-store model

describes flow between three permanent storage systems of memory: the sensory register (SR), short-term memory (STM) and long-term memory (LTM).

phonological loop

The part of working memory that deals with spoken and written material

primary memory system

The system responsible for temporary storage of information

procedural memory

Memory for how to perform tasks

prospective memory

Remembering to perform a task at a future time

retrieval

The process of getting information out of memory storage

semantic memory

Memory for facts and general knowledge

sensory memory

The immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

shallow encoding

Encoding on a basic level based on structure or appearance of words

storage

The retention of encoded information over time

visuospatial sketchpad

The part of working memory that holds and manipulates visual and spatial information

working memory

Working memory is the small amount of information that can be held in mind and used in the execution of cognitive tasks

working memory model

A model describing working memory as consisting of multiple components

chunking

Organizing items into familiar, manageable units

distributed practice

Spacing the study of material over time

encoding

The process of getting information into the memory system

categories (as they pertain to grouping)

Classes or divisions of items based on shared characteristics

hierarchies (as they pertain to grouping)

Systems of organizing information in levels of importance

massed practice

Cramming the study of material into a short period

memory consolidation

The process of stabilizing a memory trace

method of loci

A mnemonic device that involves associating items with physical locations

mnemonic devices

Techniques for enhancing memory

primacy effect

The tendency to recall the first items in a list

recency effect

The tendency to recall the last items in a list

serial position effect

The tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list

spacing effect

The phenomenon where learning is greater when studying is spread out over time

Alzheimer's disease

A progressive neurodegenerative disorder characterized by memory loss

anterograde amnesia

Inability to form new memories

autobiographical memory

Memory of one's life events

elaborative rehearsal

A memory technique that involves thinking about the meaning of the term to be remembered

infantile amnesia

The inability to retrieve memories from early childhood

long-term memory

the memory process in the brain that takes information from the short-term memory store and creates long lasting memories

maintenance rehearsal

Repeating information to keep it in short-term memory

memory retention

The ability to retain information over time

retrograde amnesia

Loss of memories from before an injury or illness

context-dependent memory

a phenomenon in which the retrieval of memories is stronger when it occurs in the same environment or context in which the memories were originally formed

metacognition

awareness and understanding of one's own thought processes

mood-congruent memory

a psychological phenomenon in which a person tends to remember information that is consistent with their particular mood

recall

Retrieving information from memory without cues

recognition

Identifying information previously learned

retrieval

The process of getting information out of memory storage

retrieval cues

Stimuli that aid the recall or recognition of information

state-dependent memory

a state that the retrieval of recently obtained information may be potential if the subject exists in a similar physiological situation as for the period of the encoding stage

testing effect

Enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information

constructive memory

The creation of false memories based on existing knowledge