Studied by 0 people
attribution
an explanation or reasoning a person gives for why a certain behavior or event occurs
dispositional attribution
explains a behavior as being caused by internal traits
situational attribution
explains a behavior as being influenced by external factors
optimistic explanatory style
often credits positive outcomes to internal factors and negative outcomes to external factors; believes good things will happen to good people
pessimistic explanatory style
often credits positive outcomes to external factors and negative outcomes to internal factors
actor-observer bias
tendency to attribute our own behavior to situational attributions while attributing others’ behavior to dispositional attributions
fundamental attribution error
tendency to overemphasize dispositional attributions and underestimate situational factors when explaining another person’s behavior
self-serving bias
tendency to attribute personal successes to dispositional attributions and failures to situational attributions
internal locus of control
those with high internal locus of control believe their actions, decisions, and efforts determine the outcomes of their life
external locus of control
those with a high external locus of control believe outside factors are what are responsible for what happens to them in life
mere exposure effect
phenomenon where an individual develops a preference for something simply because they are familiar with it
self-fulfilling prophecy
a belief or expectation that influences behaviors, causing the belief to become true
social comparison (upward, downward)
upward → comparing yourself to someone better off or more skilled
downward → comparing yourself to someone worse off or less skilled
relative deprivation
feeling of discontent that comes from comparing oneself to others who are perceived as better off
stereotype
overgeneralized beliefs about a group of people
cognitive load
the mental effort required to process information
prejudiced attitudes
biased thinking about a group of people
discriminatory behavior
unfair treatment and actions taken against a group of people
implicit attitudes
beliefs or feelings that an individual has that are held at an unconscious level
just-world phenomenon
tendency for people to believe that the world is just and fair and that things are the way they are for a reason
out-group homogeneity bias
tendency to perceive members of an out-group as more similar to each other than they actually are
in-group bias
tendency to favor members of one’s own group over those of other groups
ethnocentrism
belief that one’s own culture or group is superior to others, resulting in the individual viewing other cultures by their own standards and not the standards of the culture
belief perseverance
tendency to keep a belief even after it has been disproven
confirmation bias
tendency to focus on information that confirms a pre-existing view and dismiss conflicting information
cognitive dissonance
the discomfort experienced when one’s actions, belief, or attitudes are inconsistent with each other
social norms
unwritten rules and expectations that guide how people in a society or group behave
normative social influence (social influence theory)
when individuals conform to a group to be liked, accepted, or to avoid rejection
informational social influence (social influence theory)
when individuals conform because they believe others have more accurate information
elaboration likelihood model
theory that explains how people process persuasive information and change their attitudes
central route to persuasion
using facts to persuade someone, often taking more time and elaboration
peripheral route to persuasion
using emotions to persuade someone, often taking less time than central route
halo effect
cognitive bias where a person’s positive impression of another person influences their perception of their actions and thoughts
foot-in-the-door technique to persuasion
where agreeing to a small request increases the likelihood of agreeing to a larger request
door-in-the-face technique to persuasion
where a larger request is made first, likely to be refused, followed by a smaller request, likely to be accepted
conformity
when someone changes their attitudes, behaviors, or opinions to match a group's norms
obedience
following direct orders from an authority figure, often regardless of personal judgement
individualism
a culture focusing on personal goals, independence, and self-expression over the group identity
collectivism
a culture that focuses on group goals and interdependence over individual goals
multiculturalism
a culture that consists of different cultural identities that all coexist together as one
group polarization
tendency for an individual’s opinions, thought, and/or actions to become more extreme in a group setting (occurs in groups that have like-minded people)
groupthink
tendency for groups to prioritize consensus over critical evaluation, leading to poor-decision making
diffusion of responsibility
phenomenon where an individual feels less personally accountable and responsible for taking action or helping in a situation where others are present
social loafing
tendency for individuals to try less in a group setting because they can rely on others in the group to carry the workload
deindividuation
the loss of self-awareness and individual accountability in group settings, often leading to impulsive acts
social facilitation
the improved performance on a task in the presence of others
false consensus effect
the tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share one’s beliefs or views
superordinate goals
shared goals that require cooperation between groups to achieve, reducing conflict and promoting injury
social trap
situations in which individuals act in their own short-term interest, disregarding the long-term negative consequences
industrial-organizational psychology
applying psychological principles to workplace issues, focusing on productivity and well-being
altruism
behaviors that benefit another person with no expectation of personal gain or reward
prosocial behavior
actions that are intended to benefit others
social debt
perceived obligation to repay social favors, interactions, or commitments that have been received
social responsibility norm
expectations that people will help those who are dependent or in need of assistance
social reciprocity norm
expectations that people have when doing something for someone else
bystander effect
phenomenon where individuals are less likely to offer help in a situation where others are present
psychodynamic theory of personality
suggests that events in our childhood have a significant influence on our adult lives, shaping our personality
unconscious processes
mental activities that happen without conscious awareness or control
ego defense mechanisms
defense mechanisms used by the ego to protect itself and reduce anxiety
denial
refusing to acknowledge or accept reality to avoid dealing with painful emotions or situations
displacement
redirecting emotions from the original source to a safer or less threatening target
projection
putting one’s thoughts and feelings onto someone else
rationalization
justifying behaviors or feelings with socially acceptable reasons rather than the real reasons
reaction formation
adopting behaviors or attitudes opposite to one’s true feelings
regression
reverting back to behaviors that are from an earlier developmental stage
repression
unconsciously blocking unpleasant memories or thoughts from a person’s conscious awareness
sublimation
channeling unacceptable impulses into socially acceptable activities
projective tests
have open responses and does not limit the test taker to a select group of answers
preconscious and unconscious mind
preconscious → things that can be brought into consciousness at any time
unconscious → thoughts and feelings that exist outside of one's conscious awareness
humanistic perspective/psychology
individual’s personality grows with an individual and is influenced by their needs and environment
unconditional (positive) regard
accepting and valuing someone without any conditions or requirements
self-actualizing tendency
when and individual is motivated to strive for their fullest potential
social-cognitive theory
highlights importance of observational learning, social experiences, and cognitive processes in the development of an individual’s personality
reciprocal determinism
idea that a person’s personality is shaped by their interactions between their own personal factors, behaviors, and environment
self-concept
different beliefs, perceptions, and feelings an individual has about themselves
self-efficacy
an individual’s belief in their ability to do a specific task
self-esteem
how a person perceives themselves overall
trait theories of personality
a person’s personality is set by enduring characteristics
big 5 theory of personality (ocean)
describes personality traits as existing along five broad dimensions
agreeablness
involves a person’s trustworthiness, altruism, kindness, and affection
openness to experience
involves a person’s imagination, creativity, and curiosity
extraversion
involves a person’s sociability, enthusiasm, and assertiveness
conscientiousness
involves a person’s organization, dependability, discipline, and goal-directed behaviors
neuroticism (emotional stability)
involves a person’s tendency to experience emotional stability and remain calm in stressful situations
personality inventories
self-assessment tools that measure personality traits
factor analysis
statistical method that identifies clusters of related items within an inventory
drive-reduction theory
suggests that a person’s biological needs create internal states of tension, known as drives, which motivate an individual to engage in behaviors that will reduce their drives and restore them to homeostasis
homeostasis
process by which an organism maintains a stable internal environment, despite changes in the external environment
arousal theory (optimal arousal)
as a person becomes aroused, they perform better at a task, but if they become too aroused, their performance decreases
yerkes-dodson law
principle that performance increases with arousal, but only up to a certain point
self-determination theory
idea that both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation drive an individual to act; intrinsic motivation is stronger and often leads to more fulfillment
intrinsic motivation
comes from within a person
extrinsic motivation
comes from outside of an individual
incentive theory
believes that people are motivated to pursue different activities that offer positive rewards or incentives; external rewards extrinsically motivate people
instincts
fixed patterns of behavior that automatically kick in when a certain stimuli is encountered
lewin’s motivational conflicts theory
posits that individuals experience internal tension, or conflict, when faced with competing desires or goals
approach-approach conflict
when an individual is forced to pick between two positive outcomes
approach-avoidance conflict
when there is only one goal which has both positive and negative aspects to it
avoidance-avoidance conflict
when an individual is forced to choose between two negative outcomes
sensation seeking theory (experience seeking, thrill seeking, adventure seeking, disinhibition, boredom susceptibility)
suggests that people are motivated by the need for new experiences
experience seeking → desire for new/unconventional experiences
thrill/adventure seeking → drive to engage in physically risky activities
disinhibition → seek out social/recreational situations that involve relaxing and having fun
boredom susceptibility → tolerance for repetitive or routine experiences
