Psych Review #4- ch 11, 12, 13 BOOK

Diffusion of Responsibility or Bystander Apathy

Tendency for an individual to feel a diminished sense of responsibility to assist in an emergency when other bystanders are present

Social Perception

The way in which we perceive, evaluate, categorize, and form judgments about the qualities of other people

Primacy Effect

The phenomenon that the first information we receive about a person often has the greatest influence on our perceptions of that person

Person Schemas

Generalized assumptions about certain groups or classes of people

Implicit Personality Theories

Assumptions people make about how traits usually occur together in other people’s personalities

Central Trait

In Gordon Allport’s trait theory of personality, a major characteristic, such as honesty or sensitivity

Halo Effect

Tendency to infer other positive or negative traits from our perception of one trait in another person.

Physical Attractiveness Stereotype

Tendency to believe that good-looking people are also funnier, smarter, more likeable than less good-looking people

Attribution Theory (Heider; Weiner; 1946; 1986)

Theory that we attempt to make sense out of other people’s behavior by attributing it to either dispositional (internal) causes or situational (external) causes

Correspondent Inference Theory (Edward E. Jones; Jones et al., 1989)

Theory that the attributions we make about other people’s behavior are influenced by a variety of conditions, such as the social desirability of that behavior or whether the behavior results from free choice

Covariation Principle (Howard Kelly; 1987)

Theory that our attributions about people’s behavior are influenced by the situations in which the behavior occurs, the persons involved, and the stimuli or objects toward which the behavior is directed

Fundamental Attribution Error

Tendency to overestimate dispositional (internal) causes of behavior and to underestimate situational (external) causes of behavior

False Consensus Bias

Attribution bias caused by the assumption that most people share our own attitudes and behaviors

Illusion of Control

Attributional bias caused by the belief that we control events in our own lives that are really beyond our control

Distinctiveness

is the degree to which other stimuli are capable of eliciting the same behavior from the young man.

Consistency

is the degree to which the young man exhibits the same behavior in response to the same stimulus on other occasions.

Consensus

is the degree to which other people exhibit the same response to the stimulus as the actor.

Attitude

Any learned, relatively enduring predisposition to respond in consistently favorable or unfavorable ways to certain people, groups, ideas, or situations

Impression Management

Tendency of individuals to carefully select what information they reveal about their attitudes, depending on how they think such information will affect their image in the eyes of others

Stereotype Threat

The tendency to conform to negative stereotypes

Cognitive Dissonance Theory (Festinger, 1957)

The theory that people experience psychological discomfort or dissonance whenever cognitions and behaviors are in conflict

Prejudice

Negative, unjustifiable, and inflexible attitude toward a group and its members

Stereotypes

Preconceived and oversimplified beliefs and expectations about the traits of members of a particular group that do not account for individual differences

Discrimination

In social psychology, the behavioral consequence of prejudice in which one group is treated differently from another group

Ingroup

In social psychology, the group in which people include themselves when they divide the world into “us” and “them”

Ingroup Bias

Tendency to see one’s own group in a favorable light

Outgroup

The “them” group when individuals divide the world into “us” and “them”

Intergroup Threat

The perception that one’s ingroup is threatened by a particular social outgroup

Implicit Attitude (Greenwald et al., 1998; Fazio & Olson, 2003; Kihlstrom, 2004).

Unconscious attitude that may be socially undesirable and may influence one’s behavior without one’s knowledge

Implicit Association Test (IAT)

Test that attempts to measure the strength of a person’s implicit attitudes

Social Influence

Efforts by others to alter our feelings, beliefs, and behavior

Conformity

Tendency to change or modify behaviors so that they are consistent with those of other people

Informational Social Influence (Deutsch and Gerard 1955)

One basis of conformity in which we accept a group’s beliefs or behaviors as providing accurate information about reality

Normative Social Influence

Social influence in which we conform not because of an actual change in our beliefs, but because we think we will benefit in some way (such as gaining approval)

When Are We Most Likely to Conform? (Asch)

1. Unanimity of the majority group: We are much more likely to conform if the majority group is unanimous

2. Perception that the majority of group members are acting independently: If we perceive that the other members of a group are acting independently of one another, we are more likely to conform than if we sense some collusion among them.

3. Majority group size: The size of the group makes a difference. If there are at least three or four other people in the group, we are more likely to conform. Further increases in the group size generally do not increase the likelihood of conformity, and may even decrease it.

   Familiarity with the attitude object: If we have no preconceived notions about the attitude object, we are more likely to act in a conforming manner than if this is not the case.

4. Low self-esteem: People whose sense of personal self-worth is low or who are especially concerned about social relationships are more likely to conform than people with higher self-esteem or less regard for social relationships.

5. Perceptions about other group members: We are more likely to conform if we consider the other group members to be of higher status than ourselves, or if we have high regard for the other group members. We are also more likely to conform if we perceive other group members as having power over us (in the sense of being able to administer reinforcers or punishers), or if we know that other group members will be able to observe our actions.

Compliance

Form of social influence in which people alter their behavior in response to direct requests from others; usually involves a degree of coercion

Foot-in-the-Door Technique

Technique for encouraging compliance in which a person is first asked to agree to a relatively minor request that serves as a setup for a more major request

Door-in-the-Face Technique

Method for encouraging compliance in which an unreasonable request is followed by a more minor, reasonable request that is the requester’s goal in the first place

Obedience

Social influence in which we alter our behavior in response to commands or orders from people perceived as having power or authority

Groupthink

A psychological drive for consensus at any cost that suppresses dissent and consideration of alternatives in group decision-making

Seven Strategies to Avoid Groupthink in Group Decision-Making

1. Group leader should assign all members the role of critical evaluator.

2. Supervisors should avoid expressing opinions when assigning a group a task.

3. Several independent groups should work on the same problem if possible.

4. All effective alternatives should be examined.

5. Members should discuss the group’s ideas outside the group.

6. The group should invite outside experts to share ideas.

7. At least one group member should be assigned the role of devil’s advocate.

Abnormal Behavior

Behavior that is atypical, maladaptive, or socially unacceptable, or that produces emotional discomfort

three best known etiological (explanatory) perspectives for classifying mental health disorders

psychoanalytic theory, behavioral explanations, and biological explanations

Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

A neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by inattention, lack of impulse control, and hyperactivity

Anxiety Disorder

Any of a number of disorders that produce pervasive feelings of anxiety

Panic Disorder

Anxiety disorder in which an individual experiences numerous panic attacks (four or more in a four-week period) that are characterized by overwhelming terror and often a feeling of unreality or depersonalization

Agoraphobia

An anxiety disorder characterized by an intense fear of being in places or situations from which escape might be difficult or in which help might not be available, such as stores, theaters, and trains; often accompanies panic disorder

Phobia

Any of a number of anxiety disorders characterized by a persistent fear of and consequent avoidance of a specific object or situation

Social Anxiety

Anxiety disorder characterized by a persistent, irrational fear of performing some specific behavior (such as talking or eating) in the presence of other people

Specific Phobia

Anxiety disorder characterized by an irrational fear of specific situations or objects, such as heights, small closed places, strangers or animals

Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD)

A chronic state of free-floating anxiety or worry that has persisted for at least six months

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)

Anxiety disorder characterized by persistent, unwanted, and unshakable thoughts or irresistible, habitual repeated actions

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

Anxiety disorder that typically follows a traumatic event or events; characterized by a reliving of that event, avoidance of stimuli associated with the event or numbing of general responsiveness, and increased arousal

Psychoanalytic perspective for mental disorders

GAD- ego is blocked by impulses that produce constant state of tension
Phobias may occur if the individual displaces this anxiety to some object, situation, or social function that can be avoided
panic disorders and agoraphobia- hese disorders may both be rooted in an unresolved separation anxiety (a fear of being separated from parents) early in life

Behavioral perspective for mental disorders

Pavlovian conditioning- Phobias are the result of learned associations between previously neutral stimuli and frightening events

avoidance learning

Once fear or anxiety is conditioned to certain stimuli, people may then learn to reduce this conditioned fear by avoiding the fear stimulus

Role of amygdala and prefrontal cortex

don’t turn off properly = phobias occur

Basal Ganglia

A group of brain structures that lie under the cerebral cortex and function as “way stations” between the input of sensory messages and resulting cortically initiated motor or cognitive outputs

Cingulotomy

A surgical procedure partially separating the cingulate cortex from the frontal lobes that is performed to treat severe obsessive-compulsive disorder

Dissociative Disorders

Group of disorders, including psychogenic amnesia, depersonalization-derealization disorder, and dissociative identity disorder, in which the thoughts and feelings that generate anxiety are separated or dissociated from conscious awareness

Dissociative Amnesia

An inability to recall important autobiographical information after a traumatic or stressful episode

Depersonalization-Derealization Disorder

A persistent detachment from one’s thoughts, feelings, or body sensations

Dissociative Identity Disorder

A condition of separation in personality, or multiple personality, not attributable to disease or brain injury; previously called multiple personality disorder

Depressive Disorders

Class of disorders, including major depression, dysthymic disorders, and substance induced depression, characterized by persistent depression

Major Depressive Disorder

The persistent feeling of intense sadness, loss, and worthlessness, often accompanied by thoughts of suicide

Interpersonal Stress Generation Model of Depression

A model for understanding depression that emphasizes the interplay between interpersonal stress and depressive symptoms.

Bipolar Disorder

A psychiatric disorder characterized by extreme mood swings from immobilizing depression to euphoria and frantic activity; previously referred to as manic-depressive disorder

Mania

A mood state characterized by expanded self-esteem, reduced need for sleep, excessive talking about extravagant ideas, and delusions

Hypomania

A mood characterized by persistent and pervasive elevated mood (a mood state less severe than mania)

Delusion

An exaggerated and rigidly held belief that has little or no basis in fact

Hallucination

False perception that lacks a sensory basis; can be produced by hallucinogenic drugs, fatigue, or sensory deprivation (Auditory hallucinations can be associated with severe psychotic disorders.)

The Psychoanalytic Perspective on depressive disorders

Mood disorders rooted in oral fixation (oral stage frustration) and direct love/hate towards themselves

The Behavioral Perspective on depressive disorders

Depression linked to instability in life- not just lost of loved one, but lost job, move to different area etc- very little control over life

Learned Helplessness

A diminished ability to learn an avoidance response following exposure to unavoidable aversive stimulation may contribute to some forms of depression and nonresponsiveness in humans and other animals

Biological perspective on depressive disorders

Genetics- concordance rate between identical twins = higher genetic contribution of disorder
Brain biochemistry- altered levels of neurotransmitters

Monoamine Theory

The first formal biochemical theory of mood disorders; proposes that depression is related to reduction in activity of the monoamine neurotransmitters norepinephrine and/or serotonin in specific regions of the brain

Vulnerability-Stress Model

A scientific framework in which biological factors (susceptibility) combine with environmental stressors to result in a mental health disorder.

Schizophrenia

Class of severe and disabling mental disorders characterized by extreme disruptions of perceptions, thoughts, emotions, and behavior. delusions, hallucinations, thinking and speech, motor behavior, and motivation and emotional expression

Delusion of influence

A belief that others are influencing one by means of wires, TV, and so on, making one do things against one’s will

Delusion of grandeur

The belief that one is in actuality some great world or historical figure, such as Napoleon, Queen Victoria, or the president of the United States

Delusion of persecution

The belief that one is being persecuted, hunted, or interfered with by certain individuals or organized groups

Delusion of reference

The belief that others are talking about one, that one is being included in TV shows or plays or referred to in news articles, and so on

Delusion of bodily changes

The belief that one’s body is changing in some unusual way—for example, that the blood is turning to snakes or the flesh to concrete

Delusion of nihilism

The belief that nothing really exists, that all things are simply shadows; also common in the idea that one has really been dead for many years and is observing the world from afar

5 common symptoms of schizophrenia

delusion, hallucination/disturbance, disturbance in emotional expression (flat), abnormal speech patterns, disorganized behavior

Mutism

Speech disturbance characteristic of schizophrenia in which an individual may not utter a sound for hours or days at a time

Echolalia

Speech disturbance characteristic of some forms of schizophrenia in which people repeat virtually every statement they hear uttered

Positive Symptoms

Represent an excess or distortion of normal behavior of schizophrenia; may include hallucinations, delusions, and excessive verbal behavior

Negative Symptoms

Represent diminished or absent behavior of schizophrenia; may include flattened emotions, diminished social behavior, apathy, anhedonia, and catatonic motor behavior

The Psychoanalytic Perspective for schizophrenia

occurs when ego gets overwhelmed with id demands- regressive symptoms to infantile rationale and restitution symptoms like hallucinations

The Behavioral Perspective for schizophrenia

individuals with schizophrenia either have not been reinforced adequately for responding to normal social stimuli or, perhaps, have even been punished for such responses

The Biological Perspective for schizophrenia

ppl genetically predisposed to get schizophrenia but twins are more likely to get it if they share placentas/blood supplies

monochorionic twins

twins develop with same blood supply and share placenta

dichromic twins

twins develop with diff blood supply and separate placentas

The dopamine hypothesis

suggests that schizophrenia is caused either by abnormally high levels of the neurotransmitter dopamine or by above-normal activity of this neurotransmitter due to an increased number of receptors for dopamine.

Psychotherapy

Any nonbiological, noninvasive psychological technique or procedure designed to improve a person’s adjustment to life

Psychoanalysis

Technique developed by Freud in which an individual’s revelations of normally unconscious cognitions are interpreted

Free Association

Psychoanalytic technique developed by Sigmund Freud in which patients relax and say whatever comes to their minds

Dream Analysis

Psychoanalytic technique involving the interpretation of dreams to learn about hidden aspects of personality

Resistance

In psychoanalysis, a patient’s unwillingness to describe freely some aspects of his or her life