Chapter 12: Linear Regression and Correlation

Degrees of freedom

n - 2

Outliers

are observed data points that are far from the least squares line.

Influential points

observed data points that are far from the other observed data points in the horizontal direction. These points may have a big effect on the slope of the regression line.

p-value is less than the significance level

We reject the null hypothesis. There is sufficient evidence to conclude that there is a significant linear relationship between x and y because the correlation coefficient is significantly different from zero

p-value is NOT less than the significance level

DO NOT REJECT the null hypothesis. There is insufficient evidence to conclude that there is a significant linear relationship between x and y because the correlation coefficient is NOT significantly different from zero.

Null Hypothesis

H0→ ρ \= 0

Alternate Hypothesis

Ha→ ρ ≠ 0

Interpreting Null Hypothesis

The population correlation coefficient IS NOT significantly different from zero. There IS NOT a significant linear relationship (correlation) between x and y in the population.

Interpreting Alternate Hypothesis

The population correlation coefficient IS significantly DIFFERENT FROM zero. There IS A SIGNIFICANT LINEAR RELATIONSHIP (correlation) between x and y in the population.

ρ

population correlation coefficient

r

sample correlation coefficient

Conclusion for Significant

There is sufficient evidence to conclude that there is a significant linear relationship between x and y because the correlation coefficient is significantly different from zero.

Conclusion for Not Significant

"There is insufficient evidence to conclude that there is a significant linear relationship between x and y because the correlation coefficient is not significantly different from zero."

Significance of the correlation coefficient

to decide whether the linear relationship in the sample data is strong enough to use to model the relationship in the population.

Coefficient of determination

a number between 0 and 1 that measures how well a statistical model predicts an outcome

r^2 interpretation

when expressed as a percent, represents the percent of variation in the dependent (predicted) variable y that can be explained by variation in the independent (explanatory) variable x using the regression (best-fit) line.

1 - r^2 Interpretation

when expressed as a percentage, represents the percent of the variation in y that is NOT explained by variation in x using the regression line.

Positive correlation

A positive value of r means that when x increases, y tends to increase and when x decreases, y tends to decrease.

Positive correlation

A negative value of r means that when x increases, y tends to decrease and when x decreases, y tends to increase

Correlation coefficient (r)

is numerical and provides a measure of strength and direction of the linear association between the independent variable x and the dependent variable y.

Slope equation

b \= r (sy / sx)

sx

= the standard deviation of the x values.

sy

= the standard deviation of the y values

Interpretation of the Slope

“The slope of the best-fit line tells us how the dependent variable (y) changes for every one unit increase in the independent (x) variable, on average.”

Least-Squares Line

You have a set of data whose scatter plot appears to "fit" a straight line

Least-squares regression line

Helps obtain a line of best fit

y hat

estimates value of y

y0 – ŷ0 \= ε0

error or residual

Absolute value of a residual

measures the vertical distance between the actual value of y and the estimated value of y

ε

the Greek letter epsilon

Scatterplot Direction

High values of one variable occurring with high values of the other variable or low values of one variable occurring with low values of the other variable

Strength

Looking at how close the points are to the line

Linear regression

shows the relationship between a dependent and independent variable(s)

Scatterplot

uses dots to represent values for two different numeric variables.

y \= a + bx

linear regression for two variables is based on a linear equation with one independent variable.

Independent variable

x

Dependent variable

y

Slope

b

y-intercept

a

Graph form

a straight line or linear

B \> 0

slopes to the right

b \= 0

horizontal line

b < 0

slopes downward to the right

Bivariate data

two variable data

Multivariate data

more than two variables