Cardiovascular/ Respiratory NOTES

What are the formed elements of blood?

Erythrocytes (RBCs), leukocytes (WBCs), and platelets.

What are the primary functions of erythrocytes?

Transport oxygen via hemoglobin and assist in carbon dioxide transport.

What are the primary functions of leukocytes?

Immune defense; includes neutrophils (bacterial defense), lymphocytes (viral defense), monocytes (phagocytosis), eosinophils (parasite defense), and basophils (allergic response).

What are the primary functions of platelets?

Blood clotting (hemostasis).

What is the difference between plasma and serum?

Plasma contains clotting factors; serum is plasma without clotting proteins.

What is the major protein responsible for the osmotic pressure of blood?

Albumin.

What is hematopoiesis?

The formation of blood cells in the bone marrow.

What stimulates erythropoiesis?

Erythropoietin (Epo), produced by the kidneys in response to low blood oxygen levels.

What is the function of hemoglobin?

Binds and transports oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood.

What is jaundice (icterus)?

A condition caused by excessive bilirubin in the blood, leading to yellow discoloration of the skin and eyes.

What is anemia?

A condition characterized by insufficient RBCs or hemoglobin, leading to reduced oxygen transport.

What are the main causes of anemia?

Blood loss, decreased RBC production, or increased RBC destruction.

What is a hematocrit used for?

Measuring the percentage of RBCs in total blood volume.

What is hemostasis?

The process of stopping bleeding.

What are the three reactions that aid in hemostasis?

Vessel constriction, platelet plug formation, and blood clot formation.

What is a biological cascade?

A series of enzymatic reactions where one molecule activates multiple target molecules, leading to an amplified response.

What are the roles of thrombin, fibrinogen, and fibrin in clotting?

Thrombin converts fibrinogen into fibrin, which forms the clot.

How does warfarin work?

It inhibits vitamin K-dependent clotting factors, preventing blood clot formation.

What is endothelium?

A layer of cells lining blood vessels, preventing unwanted clotting.

What is the difference between pulmonary and systemic circulation?

Pulmonary circulation moves blood between the heart and lungs; systemic circulation moves blood between the heart and the body.

What are the major anatomical components of the heart?

Atria, ventricles, valves (tricuspid, bicuspid, semilunar), and the conduction system.

Trace the flow of blood through the heart and circulatory system.

RA → RV → Pulmonary arteries → Lungs → Pulmonary veins → LA → LV → Aorta → Body → Vena Cava → RA.

What are the functional components of the heart conduction system?

SA node, AV node, Bundle of His, Purkinje fibers.

What are the stages of heart contraction?

Systole (contraction, increased pressure) and diastole (relaxation, decreased pressure).

What is cardiac output and how is it altered?

The volume of blood the heart pumps per minute (CO = SV × HR); altered by heart rate and stroke volume changes.

What are the functional differences between arteries, capillaries, and veins?

Arteries carry blood away from the heart under high pressure, capillaries facilitate exchange, and veins return blood under lower pressure with valves.

What is blood pressure and how is it maintained?

The force of blood against vessel walls; maintained by cardiac output, vessel resistance, and neural/hormonal regulation.

What is the role of the lymphatic system in fluid balance?

It returns interstitial fluid to the bloodstream and transports fats.

What are the major organs of the respiratory system?

Nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs.

What organs contain the mucociliary apparatus?

Trachea and bronchi.

What is the mediastinum?

The central compartment of the thoracic cavity containing the heart, esophagus, trachea, and major blood vessels.

What is the pleura?

A serous membrane surrounding the lungs, reducing friction during breathing.

What are the main functions of the respiratory system?

Gas exchange, pH balance, protection, and phonation.

Define inspiration and expiration.

Inspiration: Air enters the lungs as thoracic volume increases. Expiration: Air exits as thoracic volume decreases.

How does gas exchange occur in the lungs and tissues?

Oxygen diffuses from alveoli to blood, CO₂ diffuses from blood to alveoli; in tissues, oxygen diffuses into cells while CO₂ moves into blood.

What factors affect ventilation control?

CO₂ levels (primary), O₂ levels (secondary), pH changes, and neural control.