A-level Psychology AQA -paper 3 flashcards

full set of flashcards for psychology A-level (AQA) paper 3. Relationships, Aggression, Schizophrenia, and Issues and Debates. :)

define schizophrenia

define schizophrenia

severe mental illness where contact with reality and insight are impaired

• effects about 1% of the population

• more commonly diagnosed in men than women

• higher diagnosis rates in urban areas

• more common in WC than MC

define ‘positive symptom’

atypical symptoms experienced in addition to normal experiences.

define ‘negative symptom’

atypical symptoms that represent the loss of a usual experience.

what are the positive symptoms of schizophrenia?

• hallucinations

• delusions

what are the negative symptoms of schizophrenia?

• avolition

• speech poverty

define hallucinations as a positive symptoms of schizophrenia

unusual sensory experiences with no basis in reality - can be experienced through any sense

define delusions as a positive symptom of schizophrenia

beliefs that have no basis in reality - often experienced as paranoia and can take a range of forms

define avolition as a negative symptom of schizophrenia

loss of motivation to carry out tasks - apathy

Andreason (1982) -

• poor hygiene

• lack of persistence in work or education

• lack of energy

define speech poverty as a ‘negative symptom’ of schizophrenia

changes in patterns of speech

reduction in both amount and quality of speech

also characterised by disorganisation in which speech becomes incoherent

list issues in diagnosis and classification of schizophrenia

• different definitions of symptoms (+ve vs -ve)

• different diagnostic tools - ICD(11) vs DSM(5)

• interrater reliability

• co-morbidity

• symptom overlap

• gender and cultural bias in diagnosis

outline the problems caused by different diagnosis tools for the consistent diagnosis of schizophrenia

• ICD(11) recognises different subtypes of schizophrenia - more than DSM(5)

  • may not receive a diagnosis that you otherwise would’ve if you lived somewhere else

• ICD(11) will diagnose if you only have -ve or +ve symptoms but DSM(5) requires both +ve and -ve

outline the problem of interrater reliability in the diagnosis of scz

Cheniaux - two psychiatrists independently diagnosed 100 patients using both DSM and ICD characteristic

• interrater reliability was v low

  • one diagnosed 26 according to DSM and 44 according to ICD

  • one diagnosed 13 according to DSM and 24 according to ICD

• likelihood of receiving a scz diagnosis = partially dependent on who is diagnosing you

outline the issue of co-morbidity and symptom overlap in diagnosing scz

outline the issue of co-morbidity and symptom overlap in diagnosing scz

two or more conditions occur together

• this can call into question the validity of their diagnosis

• Peter Buckley (2009)

  • 50% of patients w a scz diagnosis also have depression

  • 29% comorbid w PTSD

  • 23% comorbid w OCD

• maybe we’re just bad at telling the difference between the two conditions

• considerable symptom overlap between scz and other mental illnesses like bipolar disorder

  • diagnosis becomes confusing and less valid

outline the issue of gender bias in diagnosing scz

• men are consistently diagnosed more

  • this could simply be because they’re more genetically vulnerable

  • or could be gender bias

• Cotton et al (2009) - female patients function better than men

  • more likely to work and have good relationships

  • symptoms are either completely masked or appear not to be severe enough to warrant a diagnosis

outline the issue of cultural bias in diagnosing scz

• diagnosis rates are highest among African-Americans and British people of Afro-Caribbean origin

  • this is not paralleled by particularly high rates of scz in Africa

• explanations could be:

  • +ve symptoms - hearing voices - are more accepted in African cultures, potentially thought of as communication w ancestors

    • psychiatrists in the Western world interpret this differently

  • Escobar (2012) - white psychiatrists tend to overinterpret symptoms and distrust the honesty of black people during diagnosis.

three biological explanations for schizophrenia

• genetic basis

• dopamine hypothesis

• neural correlates

outline the genetic basis of scz

• runs in families - supported by Gottesman’s research

• the closer the genetic similarity to a relative w scz, the more likely an individual is to also have scz

• candidate genes - individual genes believed to be associated with risk of inheritance

  • polygenic

  • aetiologically heterogenous

outline the dopamine hypothesis

• brains chemical messengers appear to work differently in scz patients

  • in particular, dopamine is believed to be involved

• hyperdopaminergia in the subcortex- high levels of dopamine, may be associated w poverty of speech and/or auditory hallucinations

• hypodopaminergia in the cortex - abnormal levels in cortex

  • low levels have possible role in negative symptoms of scz

outline neural correlates as a biological explanation for scz

• patterns of structure or activity in the brain that occur in conjunction with an experience and may be implicated in its origins

• neural correlates for positive symptoms -

  • Allen (2007) - low activation levels in superior temporal gyrus and anterior cingulate gyrus = higher likelihood of experiencing hallucinations

• neural correlates for negative symptoms -

  • Juckel (2006) - abnormality in ventral striatum believed to be involved in the development of avolition

give three weaknesses of biological explanations for schizophrenia

• research is mostly correlational - calls into question the validity of the assumption that these factors are causative

  • it may not be that ventral striatum damage causes -ve symptoms but that -ve symptoms or another factor cause ventral striatum damage

• role of environment - MZ twins in Gottesman’s study did not share 100% inheritance of scz despite sharing 100% of their genes - DZ twins have higher rates than siblings despite sharing the same amount of DNA -environment must have some role

• scz can occur without a family history of it - mutation.

list the psychological explanations for scz

• family dysfunction/family systems theory

  • schizophrenogenic mother

  • double-bind theory

  • expressed emotion

• cognitive explanations

  • dysfunctional thought processing

    • central control

    • metarepresentation

outline the schizophrenogenic mother as a psychological explanation of scz

• Fromm-Reichman (1948)

• interviewed patient of scz about their childhoods

• found that many of them spoke of a particular type of parent - the schizophrenogenic mother

  • cold and rejecting

  • controlling

  • creates a family climate characterised by tension and secrecy

• leads to distrust that later develops into paranoid delusions

outline double-bind theory as a psychological explanation of scz

• Bateson (1972)

• family climate is important - emphasises the role of communication

• developing child finds themselves in situations where they fear doing the wrong thing but receive mixed messages as to what the wrong thing is

• when they get it wrong - the child is punished by withdrawal of love :(

• leaves the child with an understanding of the world as confusing and dangerous

  • leads to symptoms like disorganised thinking and paranoid delusions

• not a main cause - just a risk factor

outline expressed emotion as a psychological explanation of scz

• level of emotion expressed towards a patient by their carers

• consists of 3 elements

  • verbal criticism of the patient - sometimes accompanied by violence

  • hostility towards the patient - anger and rejection

  • emotional over-involvement in the life of the patient - including needless self-sacrifice

• these are a serious source of stress for the patient

  • primarily an explanation for relapse

  • has been suggested it could trigger the onset of scz in someone who is already genetically vulnerable

outline the cognitive psychological explanations for scz

• Frith (1992) - dysfunctional thought processing

  • meta representation - cognitive ability to reflect on thoughts and behaviour. This allows us insight into our own intentions and goals.

    • dysfunction = inability to recognise our own actions as being carried out by ourselves - can explain hallucinations of voices and delusions like thought insertion

  • central control - ability to supress automatic responses and perform deliberate actions instead

    • dysfunction could lead to symptoms like disorganised speech and thought disorder

give three weaknesses of psychological explanations for schizophrenia

• socially sensitive - blame parents for condition, especially mothers

• correlation does not equal causation

• evidence for biological factors not adequately considered

what’s the biological treatment for scz?

drug therapy - antipsychotics

define antipsychotic

drugs used to reduce the intensity of symptoms, in particular, the positive ones of psychotic conditions like schizophrenia

define typical antipsychotic and give an example

first generation antipsychotics - used since 1950s, work as dopamine antagonists

Chlorpromazine

define atypical antipsychotic and give two examples

drugs for scz developed after typical antipsychs, target a range of neurotransmitters

Clozapine, Risperidone

outline the characteristics of Chlorpromazine and how it works

• typical

• taken as a tablet most often - can be an injection or syrup

• dopamine antagonist - decreases activity

  • blocks receptors

  • initially increases levels and then decreases

  • normalises neurotransmission - decreases symptoms like hallucination

• also has uses as a sedative - most effective at this in syrup form

outline the characteristics of Clozapine and how it works

• atypical

• has potentially fatal side effect in a blood disorder - therefore not available as an injection

• binds to dopamine receptors just like chlorpromazine but also targets other neurotransmitters - serotonin and glutamate

  • helps depression and anxiety too

• often prescribed for patients considered to have a high suicide risk

  • 30-50% of scz patients attempt suicide at least once

Outline the characteristics of risperidone and how it works

• typical antipsychotic

• developed in an attempt to produce a drug as effective as Clozapine but without the serious side effects

• can be taken as tablets, syrup, or injection

• starts as a low dose and is gradually increased

• works in same way as clozapine but binds to dopamine receptors even better

  • some evidence to suggest this leads to fewer side effects

give 1 strength and 3 weaknesses of the biological treatment for schizophrenia

• research support

  • typical - Thornley et al: reviewed studies comparing chlorpromazine to a placebo, comprised of 1121 participants. Found that chlorpromazine was associated with overall better functioning and relapse rate was lower

  • atypical - Meltzer: concludes that Clozapine is more effective than typical antipsychotics - effective in 30-50% of treatment resistant cases

• serious side effects

  • dizziness, agitation, sleepiness, weight gain, itchy skin …

  • tardive dyskinesia - caused by dopamine super sensitivity, grimacing, blinking, lip-smacking

  • neuroleptic malignant syndrome - blocks dopamine action in hypothalamus (associated with regulation of a number of body systems) - leads to serious, potentially fatal condition - delirium and coma

• chemical cosh argument

  • some believe they can be used to calm patients making them easier for staff to work with not for the patient’s benefit

  • this is recommended short term by the NICE but some view it as a human rights abuse

  • Germany has banned the use of them for ‘coercive treatment’

• theoretical issue of dopamine hypothesis - if the dopamine hypothesis doesn’t work then neither do antipsychotics

list the three types of psychological therapy for schizophrenia

• CBT

• Family therapy

• Token economies

outline the use of CBT to treat schizophrenia

• helps patients identify irrational thoughts

• doesn’t get rid of symptoms but better equips patients to cope with them

• patients can be helped to make sense of their delusions and hallucinations- giving psychological reasons for frightening experiences

• delusions can also be challenged so patient can learn that they aren’t based on reality

• Turkington et al - example

  • P - the mafia are observing me, deciding how to kill me

  • T - you are obviously frightened, there must be a good reason for this

  • P - do you think it’s the mafia?

  • T - it’s a possibility, but there could be other explanations. How do you know it’s the mafia?

outline the use of family therapy to treat schizophrenia

• improves the quality of communication and interaction between family members

• inline with family systems theory

• Pharoah et al - range of strategies by which family therapists aim to improve the functioning of a family with a schizophrenic member

  • therapeutic alliance with all members

  • reducing the stress of caring for an individual with schizophrenia

  • improving ability of family to anticipate and solve members

  • reduction of anger and guilt in family members

  • helping family member maintain caring/life balance

  • improving families beliefs about and behaviour towards schizophrenia

• these strategies work by reducing levels of stress and expressed emotion whilst increasing the chances of patients complying with medicine

• this = lower relapse rates and a lower likelihood of being re-admitted

outline the use of token economies to treat schizophrenia

• type of therapy based on behaviourist principle of operant conditioning

• reward systems use to manage the behaviour of scz patients who have developed maladaptive patterns of behaviour from spending extended periods of time in psychiatric hospital

  • development of bad hygiene

  • remaining in pyjamas all day

• doesn’t cure schizophrenia but improves patient’s quality of life

• tokens - often in form of coloured disks are given immediately to patients when they carry out a behaviour that has been targeted for behaviour - immediacy of reward prevents ‘delay discounting’ - the reduced effect of a delayed reward. secondary reinforcers

• rewards - tokens can be swapped for more tangible rewards, material or privilege

give three evaluation points for psychological treatments for schizophrenia

• evidence for effectiveness

  • CBT - Jauhar et al

    • reviewed results of 34 studies - CBT has a significant (but fairly small) effect on both positive and negative symptoms

  • Family therapy - Pharoah et al

    • reviewed evidence to support

    • was effective but findings over different studies were inconsistent

  • token economies - Sultana et al

    • found only 3 studies where participants were randomly allocated, only one of these 3 showed improvement in symptoms and none yielded useful information about behaviour change

• improve quality of life but do not cure

• alternative psychological treatments - like art therapy (recommended by NICE)

define the interactionist approach to schizophrenia

a broad approach to explaining schizophrenia, which acknowledges that a range of factors, including biological and psychological, are involved in the development of schizophrenia

outline the key arguments of the interactionist approach

• diathesis stress

  • Meehl’s model - diathesis = entirely genetic - if the person does not have the ‘schizogene’ then no amount of stress would lead to schizophrenia

  • Ripke: modern understanding of diathesis - there is no single ‘schizogene’, other things can serve as diathesis like psychological trauma

  • modern understandings of stress - stress was originally seen as solely psychological in nature but can now be considered to be anything that risks triggering scz

• treatment

  • combination of anti-psychotics and and psychological therapies like CBT

  • Turkington et al - it is perfectly possible to believe in biological causes, and still prescribe psychological treatment in order to decrease symptoms

  • increasingly standard practice in the UK

give two strengths and two weaknesses of the interactionist approach to explaining schizophrenia

• research support for effectiveness of combinations of treatments

  • Tarrier (2004) - 315 patients were randomly allocated to a medication + CBT group, a medication + supportive counselling group, or a control (medication only). Patients in the combination groups showed greater decrease in symptoms than those only being treated by medication

• research support for role of vulnerability and triggers

  • children adopted from 19,000 Finish mothers with schizophrenia compared to a control with no genetic risk

  • adoptive parents assessed for child rearing style

  • child rearing styles from adoptive parents characterised by high levels of criticism and conflict was implicated in the development of schizophrenia but only in the children that were already at a genetic predisposition to it

• original model over simple

  • but resolved by newer ideas

• treatment-causation fallacy

  • just because the treatments are more effective together than individually doesn’t mean the the interactionist approach is correct

What is the limbic system?

Subcortical structures in the brain thought to be closely involved in regulating emotional behaviour including aggression

What are the components of the limbic system

• hypothalamus

• amygdala

• hippocampus

• thalamus

what is the role of the amygdala in the limbic system

key role in assessing and responding to environmental threats and challenges - the reactivity of the amygdala has proven to be a reliable predictor of aggressive behaviour

Give a weakness of the limbic system as an explanation for aggressive behaviour

Studies indicate that the amygdala does not operate in isolation in determining aggression, it appears to be connected to the orbifrontal cortex which is not part of the limbic system - therefore, the limbic system is not the only brain structure involved in aggression

briefly outline the role of serotonin as a neural mechanism involved in aggression

serotonin is an inhibitory neurotransmitter - slowing down neuronal activity. Normal levels of serotonin = reduced firing of neurons = greater levels of behavioural self control. Not enough serotonin = too much neuronal firing = more impulsivity, increasing your likelihood to engage in aggressive behaviour.

Give a strength of serotonin activity as an explanation for aggressive behaviour

Berman et al (2009)

Drugs that increase serotonin activity decrease aggressive behaviour. Control group took placebo, others took serotonin increasing drug - control were more aggressive (however, only for participants w aggressive histories)

briefly outline testosterone as a hormonal mechanism in explaining aggression

reliable observation that men are generally more aggressive than women - male sex hormone testosterone has a role in regulating social behaviour. Animal studies have demonstrated that experimental increase in testosterone leads to aggressive displays - castration led to a reduction in aggression.

Dolan - violent offenders had higher levels of testosterone.

Give a weakness of testosterone levels as an explanation of aggression.

Other hormones - most specifically cortisol probably have an impact on aggressive behaviour

Carre and Mehta (2011) dual hormone hypothesis claims that testosterone only leads to aggressive behaviour when cortisol is low and when cortisol is high, testosterones influence of aggression is blocked.

give a brief outline of the findings of twin studies related to aggressive behaviour

suggests that heritability accounts for at least some aggression.

Researchers find concordance rates of about 50% for MZ twins and 19% for DZ. Obviously heritability cannot be the only factor here, otherwise the concordance rates would be 100% and 50%

give a brief outline of the findings of adoption studies related to aggressive behaviour

Rhee and Waldman (2002) - meta analysis of adoption studies of direct aggression and antisocial behaviour - found that genetic influences accounted for 41% of the variation in aggression (more or less in line with twin study findings)

what is L-MAOA

Low functioning monoamine oxidise A

enzyme in the brain, ‘mops up’ neurotransmitters after synaptic transmission - especially serotonin. Dysfunction in MAOA can effect serotonin levels in the brain.

Outline Brunner’s (1993) study into L-MAOA

studied 28 male members of a large, Dutch family who all had aggressive and violent histories , all the members with violent histories had abnormally low levels of MAOA.

Outline Stuart’s (2014) study into L-MAOA

studied 97 perpetrators of intimate partner violence, those with the lowest levels of MAOA committed more and more violent IPV.

Outline Frazzetto’s (2007) findings in his study of gene-environment (GXE) interaction

Founds an association in his sample between L-MAOA and higher levels of aggressive behaviour, but only in participants who had experienced some kind of serious psychological trauma.

List 3 genetic factors in aggression

• heritability - twin & adoption studies

• MAOA gene

• GXE interactions

Give a strength for genetic explanations for aggression

• Research support for MAOA gene - If low MAOA = aggression then high MAOA should = prosociability Mertins (2011) proved this

Give 3 weaknesses for genetic explanations for aggression

• difficult to standardise/ operationalise aggression in a way that ensures it is measured the same in every study

• Difficult to isolate genetic factors - gene and environment interaction make it impossible to determine how much influence genetics have

• Unlikely to be any sort of single candidate gene - Vassos: meta analysis found no evidence of singular or small group of genes and predicts it’s more like hundreds and thousands working together in a complex manner

Define ethology

study of animal behaviour in natural settings

outline the ethological notion that aggression is adaptive

aggression is beneficial to survival as an animal is rarely killed - rather forced to move meaning species spread out, reducing competition pressure.

Aggression is also used to establish dominance hierachies.

Define ritualistic aggression

Aggression is frequently used as a display of power and strength rather than any violence actually being involved, animal are rarely hurt. Aggressive encounters also often end in ritual appeasement displays - the loser making themselves vulnerable to the victor.

Define Innate Releasing Mechanism

A biological structure or process which is activated by an external stimulus that in turn triggers a fixed action pattern

Define Fixed Action Pattern

A sequence of stereotyped, pre-programmed behaviours triggered by an innate releasing mechanism.

List Lea’s (1984) 6 characteristics of FAPs

• Stereotyped - relatively unchanging

• Universal

• Unaffected by learning

• Ballistic - once behaviour is triggered it follows an inevitable course and cannot be stopped or altered

• Single purpose - only occurs in a specific situation, not in any other

• A response to an identifiable specific sign stimulus

Outline Tinbergen’s (1951) research into IRMs and FAPs

Study into male sticklebacks - highly territorial in mating season and develop a red spot on their underbelly. If another male (identifiable by the red spot) an FAP is triggered, Tinbergen presented sticklebacks with wooden models of varying shapes - all with red spots. Regardless of shape, if the model had a red spot, the stickleback would aggressively display - if there was no red spot, there was no aggression even if the model looked realistically like a stickleback.

Give a strength of the ethological explanation of aggression

Supporting research - Validity supported by evidence that demonstrates the genetic and physiological basis of aggression - Brunner etc.

Give 3 strengths of the ethological explanation of aggression

• Cultural differences in aggression - rates of aggression are different in different locations - e.g. north/south divide in homicide in USA. Ethological theory views aggression as instinctive so it’s difficult for it to explain how culture can override this.

• FAPs are not that fixed - Hunt (1973) sequences of behaviours that appear to be fixed are actually heavily influenced by environment. FAPs are more flexible, varying slightly from one animal and situation to another.

• Unjustified generalisation to humans - neither Lorenz or Tinbergen studied higher mammals, but generalised their findings in unsimilar animals to humans.

Outline the evolutionary explanation of sexual jealousy

unlike women, men can never be totally sure if they have fathered a child - paternity uncertainty leads to threat of cuckoldry. Psychological mechanisms have developed to prevent this - sexual jealousy is higher in males, driving aggressive strategies males sometimes employ to retain their partners.

Outline Shackleford (2005)

Studied IPV - 107 married couples completed questionaires. Men completed mate retention inventory which assessed mate retention behaviours in various categories and women completed the spouse influence report which measured the extent of their partners violence.

there was a strong positive correlation between men’s reports of their mate retention behaviours and women’s reports of their partner’s physical violence - retention behaviour reliably predict use of violence

outline the evolutionary explanation of bullying

bullying occurs because of a power imbalance. Evolutionary ancestors may have used bullying as an adaptive strategy to increases their chances of survival

Volk(2012) - argues that characteristics involved in bullying are attractive to the opposite sex and is involved in methods to secure greater reproductive success

Give 2 strengths of the evolutionary explanation of aggression

• Accounts for gender differences - evolutionary theory can explain why males typically engage in more aggressive behaviour than women and can explain differences in aggression, women commit less physical aggression because they are motivated to take less risk and this may explain why females typically engage in verbal aggression more.

• Real life applications - an evolutionary understanding of bullying as an adaptive behaviour to devise more effective antibullying interventions. If bullies are aggressive in order to gain something - they are unlikely to give up this behaviour without some kind of reward for prosocial alternatives.

Give two weaknesses for the evolutionary explanation of aggression

• Cultural differences - !Kung San tribe have negative attitudes towards the use of aggression and it’s extremeley rare in their society - surely if aggression was completely innate then we wouldn’t be able to discourage it out of children?

• Methodological issues - extremely difficult to test hypotheses about the evolution of behaviours to solve problems of adaptation in our evolutionary past. Most research is therefore correlational - cause and effect cannot be clearly or reliably established

Outline Dollard’s (1939) frustration aggression hypothesis

frustration always leads to aggression and aggression always the result of frustration - based on the psychodynamic concept of catharsis

frustration = aggressive drive = aggressive behaviour = aggressive drive satisfied through cathartic release.

aggression may be displaced in one of three situations

• cause of frustration is abstract

• cause of frustration is too powerful

• cause may be unavailable at the time

Outline Geen’s (1968) study into the effects of frustration on aggression

Male university students were given the task of completing a jigsaw puzzle, their level of frustration was manipulated in one of 3 ways

• puzzle was impossible to solve

• ran out of time because a confederate kept interfering

• confederate insulted the participant as they failed to solve the puzzle

Then participants were asked to give electric shocks to the confederate when they made mistakes on a different task - insulted participants gave the strongest shocks on average followed by the interfered group. All three groups selected more electric shocks than an unfrustrated control group

Outline Berkowitz’s (1989) study

arranged for student participants to be given electric shocks in a laboratory setting, individual who gave the shocks was a confederate, participants then had the opportunity to turn the tables and give shocks to the confederate. The number of shocks given depended on the presence or absence of weapons in the labs, when guns were present - aggression was higher

Give two strengths of the frustration aggression hypothesis

• Marcus - Newhall (2000) - meta anlaysis of 49 studies of displaced aggression, concluded that displaced aggression is a reliable phenomenon.

• Real life application to gun control - Berkowitz’s study has featured in gun control debates in the states

Give two weaknesses of the frustration aggression hypothesis

• Bushman (2002) - aggression is not cathartic. Study involved participants taking aggression out on a punching bag became more angry and aggressive rather than less - casts doubt on validity of central assumption of hypothesis

• Negative affect theory - frustration does not always lead to aggression and aggression can occur without. Hypothesis reformulated by Berkowitz to be negative affect theory: frustration is one of many averse stimuli that create negative feelings

Briefly outline Bandura’s social learning theory (1973)

aggression can be learned directly through mechanisms of operant conditioning involving positive and negative reinforcement and punishment. Aggression, as all social behaviour is learnt through observation. If an observer sees a model being rewarded for behaviour, they are more likely to repeat the behaviour.

Four cognitive conditions are needed for observational learning to take place

• Attention

• Retention

• Reproduction

• Motivation

What is the role of self efficacy in Bandura’s social learning theory of aggression

self efficacy is the belief that our actions will achieve a desired goal - a child’s confidence in their ability to be aggressive grows as they learn that aggression can bring rewards - our sense of self efficacy develops with each successful outcome of aggression.

Briefly outline Bandura’s research into aggression

young children individually observed an adult model assaulting an inflating plastic toy ‘bobo doll’, they were then frustrated by not being allowed to play with some nice looking toys, then were taken to another room where the bobo doll and some other toys were - without instruction, many of the children immediately began attacking the dolls.

give two strengths of SLT as an explanation for aggression

• Real-life applications - to portrayal of aggression in media and the potential dangers of viewing violent media

• Practical application to preventing aggression - understanding that in some cases, changing environment and opportunities for observation of aggressive models can prevent aggression

Give a weakness of SLT as an explanation for aggression

• Cannot explain reactive aggression - not all aggression is carried out in order to gain something as SLT suggests. Reactive aggression is used to achieve nothing other than retribution.

Briefly outline deindividuation as an explanation for aggression

when we are individually identifiable our behaviour constrained by social norms - in a crowd we lose restraint and have the freedom to behave in ways we wouldn’t usually as we lose out sense of individual identity and responsibility for our behaviour.

Behaviour is typically rational and normative but when we are in a crowd our behaviour becomes deindividuated, emotional and irrational “anonymity shapes crowd behaviour”

the higher your self awareness, the less likely you are to commit socially unacceptable behaviour, deindividuation = less self awareness.

Briefly outline procedure and findings Dodd’s (1985) research into aggression

• asked students what they would do if they were completely anonymous for a day

  • 36% were antisocial acts

  • only 9% prosocial

give two weaknesses and one strength of deindividuation as an explanation for aggression

• de-individuation does not always lead to violence.

  • Gergen et al - ‘deviance in the dark’ placed in a completely dark room and told they would never see each other - participants engaged in sexual rather than violent behaviour

• practical applications in understanding aggressive behaviour in the online world - anonymity through digital handles rather than identifying information

• Social identity theory - deindividuation does not guarantee violence, rather shifts the individuals identity away from themselves and towards the group - if the group norms are antisocial, then this can lead to violence

what are the dispositional and situational explanations for institutional aggression (in the context of prisons)

• dispositional - importation model

• situational - deprivation model

outline Irwin and Cressey’s importation model of institutional aggression

• prisons are not completely isolated from what’s happening in the ‘real world’

  • prisoners come from the real world and bring with them, a subculture of criminality

• the willingness of inmates to use violence inside prison to settle disputes reflects their lives before they were imprisoned

• aggression = power, status, influence, and access

• aggression is the product of individual characteristics of inmates - not of the prison environment

• supported by DeLisi (2011)

Outline the procedure and findings of DeLisi’s (2011) research

• studied 813 juvenile delinquents confined in institutions in California

• the inmates all brought into confinement several negative dispositional traits

  • experiences of childhood trauma

  • substance abuse

  • a history of violent behaviour

• these inmates were more likely to engage in suicidal activity and sexual misconduct and committed more acts of physical violence compared to a control group

give a strength and a weakness of the importation model

• research support - 561 male inmates with similar criminal histories - ½ placed in high security prisons and ½ in low security

  • 33% of those in low and 36% of those in high were involved in aggression

  • no real effect of environment but similarity of inmates was a reliable predictor of aggression

• Dilulio offers an alternative explanation - the administrative control model the importation model ignores the role of prison officials. ACM states that aggression in prisons is caused by poor management, not disposition

outline Clemmer’s deprivation model of institutional aggression

• harsh conditions in prisons are stressful for inmates

  • they cope with this by resorting to aggressive and often violent behaviour

  • deprivation of material goods is especially important - creates competition between inmates to acquire them

• influence by the nature of the prison regime

• unpredictable routines can create frustration and use of ‘lock ups’ as punishment can remove other forms of stimulation leaving aggression as a more appealing option

• violence becomes an adaptive response to the problem of deprivation

• supported by Steiner’s research

outline procedure and findings of Steiner’s research

• investigated factors predicting inmate aggression in 512 prisons in the United States

• found that inmate on inmate violence was more common in prisons with higher proportions of female staff, inmates in protective custody etc …

• these are all prison level factors (independent of the individual characteristics of prisoners)

give a strength and a weakness of the deprivation model of institutional aggression

• contradictory research - prisons that allow conjugal visits do not display lower levels of aggression

• Cunningham - out of 35 inmate homicides in Texas, all had motivations in some kind of deprivation

outline Bartholow and Anderson’s research into computer games and aggression

• participants played either an aggressive or non-aggressive computer game and then delivered white noise blasts at chosen volumes to punish a (non-existent) opponent

• those who played the violent video game selected significantly higher volumes of white noise

Outline DeLisi’s study into computer games and aggression

interviewed young offenders and found their level of violence to be highly correlated with the amount of time they spent playing violent video games

Outline Anderson’s study into computer games and aggression

• meta analysis - 136 studies

• +ve correlation between time spent playing violent video games and aggressive behaviour

give two weaknesses of research into the effects of computer games on aggression

• file drawer phenomenon - especially problematic for meta-analyses as they only deal w published research

• non-equivalence problem - it is difficult, in studies comparing the effects of violent vs non violent video games to find games that are, apart from their levels of violence, equivalent. Violent games often require more activity from the user and things like the use of more keys.

list the three media influences on aggression

• desensitisation

• disinhibition

• cognitive priming

outline how media can cause desensitisation

• repeated exposure to violent material = habituation to its typical effects (activation of sympathetic NS)

• repeated exposure to violent material = belief that aggression as a method of solving conflict is socially acceptable

• Earls (1995) - showed male participants a film that has a prolonged and graphic scene of rape - and then a re-enactment of a rape trial.

  • compared with those who watched non sexually violent films, these participants showed less sympathy towards the victim in the trial and were less likely to believe the defendant to be guilty

outline how media can cause disinhibition

• social constraints against aggressive behaviours can be weakened by repeated exposure to violent media

• the behaviour then appears more socially acceptable to the individual and is therefore more likely to occur

• link to SLT here

  • it is not unusual for video games to show violent behaviour being rewarded