Russia in Revolution 1894 - 1924

November 1917

Constituent assembly elections take place

January 1918

Constituent assembly meets but Lenin dissolves it at gunpoint

1918 - 1920

c. 300 000 put to death by the Cheka

30 August 1918

Fanny Kaplan shoots Lenin in the neck

1917

Cheka established

1917

Vesenkha set up

1917

Workers take control of factories

1921

c.150 000 employed by the Cheka

3 March 1918

Russia at Peace

1918 - 1920

Russian civil war

1920

Bolsheviks fail to invade Poland

1918

c. 200 000 foreign troops inside Russia (British troops enter Southern Russia + British and French navy enter black sea and Baltic sea)

1919

Japan + US occupy parts of Siberia

1920

Western powers withdrew from Russia

1920

c. 400 000 Prolecult members

1920

workers under military discipline

April - August 1922

Political parties outlawed and most of Moscow clergy were humiliated on public trial and imprisoned

1920 - 1921

Tambov uprising

1921

Kronstadt uprising

1917 - 1918

State capitalism

1918 - 1921

War Communism

March 1921

The New Economic Policy announced by Lenin at the 10th Party Congress

1924

Soviet economy makes recovery

1924

c.300 forced labour camps established by Cheka

1919

poor harvest resulted in c.250 000 troops deserting a month

1920

1/3 of red troops contracted typhus

1918

Red army made up of c.1million men

1920

over 5million men in red army

1922

The Prolekult movement had been largely disbanded

1922

Russia is a one party state

1921

emergence of nepmen

1923

Bolshevik party membership shrunk to 500 000

1924

Soviet Union becomes an Oligarchy

1921

c. 5000 Mensheviks arrested for counter revolutionary activities

1922

Cheka renamed the GPI (Main political administration) and arbitrary imprisonment and death penalty continued to be applied

1922

Orders sent to strip churches of precious items. Death penalties issued to leaders and thousands of priests imprisoned. violent clashes broke out when the people tried to protect their churches

1922

censorship becomes stricter

August 1918

After a failed assassination attempt against lenin the “red terror” was unleashed. c. 15 000 executed by the Cheka

1920

Antonov has a guerilla army of c. 20 000

1922

Antonov killed in an exchange of gunfire

Sovnarkom

Russian for government or cabinet. This was the top of the soviet government who would make executive decisions. They were appointed by the All Russian Congress of Soviets

All-Russian Congress of Soviets

This was a central part of the soviet government that were elected by local soviets and would appoint members to Sovnarkom

Democratic centralism

Lenin’s notion that the democracy in the Bolshevik party lay in obedience to the authority of its leaders

Vesenkha

This was the supreme council of the national economy and led to nationalisation of railways, cancellation of foreign debt, and improvements to the transport system

Constituent assembly

despite seizing power, the Bolsheviks allowed the elections to go forward yet received only 24% of the vote. It met in January where it was dissolved by Lenin at gunpoint with the red guard as he argued the election had been rigged by Kadets and SRs, the people had chosen during the October revolution, and therefore the Bolsheviks were an elected body. This was the last democratically elected government in Russia for 70 years

Felix Dzerzhinsky

Also known as Iron Felix, he ran the Cheka carrying out extreme acts of violence. He declared that the proletariat cause could not be saved without “exterminating the enemies of the working class”

Cheka

This was the Bolshevik secret police force established to destroy counter revolutionaries. Eventually it had c. 150 000 employees, and armeed, military style units were used for mass repression. They had the power to arrest and punish as they saw fit. Many were tortured or executed on the spot and by 1924 they had c.300 forced labour camps

Decree on Land

The Bolsheviks issued this to abolish private land, essentially giving approval to the peasants who had overthrown their landlords and occupied their property

Resistance

Initially, workers were angry at the lack of economic improvement and called for a new election and restoration of the constituent assembly. Left Wing Socialist Revolutionaries turned to acts of terrorism including Fanny Kaplan who attempted to assassinate Lenin

Decree on Worker’s control

Workers had begun taking over factories however it led to them being run inefficiently so the Bolsheviks issued this encouraging workers to take over factories but to also maintain order and discipline.

Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

Lenin was desperate for a settlement to WWI so started talks quickly. This treaty promised peace at a cost of Ukraine, Finland, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, Poland, and some of Armenia which was 26% of the population, 27% of arable land and 74% of cole and iron production. They also had to pay 3million rubles in reparations. Left wing Bolsheviks like Bukharin wanted to continue fighting and turn it into a revolutionary war against Germany, and some like Trotsky wanted neither peace nor war. However Lenin wanted to accept and threatened his resignation

Whites

This was a main group in the civil war led by Admiral Kolchak (c.150 000 troops), General Yudenich (c.150 000 troops), General Wrangel, and General Denikin (c.150 000 troops). This army was mainly monarchists, SRs and others and wanted to end Bolshevik rule, establish true government, restore the monarchy, and more depending on the group. They received significant aid from foreign powers however mainly controlled rural areas, had c.20million available conscripts and were divided in aims.

political commissars

ex-tsarist generals leading under red supervision

Reds

This was a major group during the civil war led by Trotsky’s people’s commissar for the war and political commissars. It was made up of Reds, workers, and city conscripts and aimed to defend the revolution. They were known for their strict rules and executions, high desertion rates and 1/3 of soldiers contracting typhus. However they controlled the cities (c70million could be conscripted), had access to manufacturing and railways, had a large army and Trotsky’s armed train covered 100 000km during the war.

Greens

an army during the civil war of national minorities struggling for independence from central Russian control. Makhno (an ex-Bolshevik) was the best leader and organised guerilla resistance to the reds in Ukraine.

War communism

(Communist dream) a series of harsh economic measures introduced during the civil war. Worker shortages with workers returning to countryside; grain requisitioning; Ban on private trade which resulted in developing black markets; Industrial enterprises nationalised; return to top down approach in factories. ultimately it was massively unsuccessful as industrial output was still below pre-war levels, agricultural output had decreased, there was hyperinflation and famine, and they had to rely on foreign industry however was the best economic policy ideologically

Bukharin and Preobrazhensky

These were the party’s leading economists and believed that war communism should be made permanent as it was an end to the capitalist system of private ownership

foreign intervention failures

It was disorganised and with different motives: Georges Clemenceau hated communism and wanted to protect Poland, Churchill believed communism was a pestilence but was eventually dismissed and labour movements called to end the intervention. Trade unionists refused to fight against a worker’s state and there was a general lack of motivation due to expense and war weariness. They were too spread out and British supplies fell into the hands of the red army

foreign intervention successes

There was widespread participation: c. 400 British troops killed, 3 Victoria crosses issued and £100 million of supplies made available to white army and by 1918 200 000 foreign troops were in Russia. Land bases were established in Russia and Britain is able to secure the independence of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. Bolsheviks were unable to invade Poland

Geography

the Reds occupation of cities put them in an easily defendable area with access to industry, transport and a high number of conscripts. The whites were too spread out and in the countryside resulting in further weaknesses

Politburo

the political bureau responsible for major political decisions

Orgburo

The organisation bureau responsible for turning policy into practice

Prolekult

proletariat culture produced by workers and peasants in an attempt to move away from high art. Alexander Bogdanov was highly influential in this area and by 1920, there were around 400,000 Prolekult members. it did increase literacy rates to 51%, but due to increased academia, Lenin turned to censorship ultimately destroying the movement

Centralisation

this increased as the civil war continued. immediate, day-to-day decisions were required so the power was moved from the central committee of the Bolshevik party to the Politburo, which formed an inner ruling group of around 7, and Orgburo. Factionalism being banned emphasised one party unity. local communist party organisations took control of soviets and took order from above making soviets subordinate to the party. war communism centralised the economy. The Bolsheviks became a Bureaucracy with the dictatorship of the proletariat (although the high leaders were not often working class)

Political rights and Freedoms

These were significantly reduced as political parties were banned and Trotsky ended the independence of trade unions. additionally workers were placed under military discipline which included a total ban on questioning orders, rate of pay and working conditions were non-negotiable, and severe penalties were issued for poor workmanship or not meeting targets. places of worship were also forcibly shut down

Violence during civil war

Terror was used by both Reds and Whites during the civil war as a war tactic. + see Cheka

Alexander Bogdanov

he was a major influence in the prolekult movement and set up studios, poetry circles, folk theatres and exhibitions.

Tambov uprising

This took place across the countryside, mainly in the Tambov region, due to ill treatment from grain requisitioning. There were over 120 individual uprisings where they seized arms and countryside regions. They hunted, tortured,e xecuted, and mutilated red sympathisers eventually amassing a guerrilla army of c.20 000. The Bolsheviks responded with mass arrests, deportations, and executions. They also held families hostage and burned homes. The principle leader Alexander Antonov was killed in an exchange of gunfire

Kronstadt uprising

This took place in Kronstadt naval base and workers felt that war communism had gone too far and the Bolsheviks had lost touch with the proletariat. thousands of workers and sailors demonstrated and were bitter to Lenin’s political commissars. Petrechenko issued a manifesto demanding freedom of speech and assembly, and the right to trade unions. This forced the Bolsheviks to contemplate party policy eventually issuing the NEP. However, an ultimatum was denied and general Tukhachevsky ordered 60 000 red troops to an artillery bombardment. workers resisted and savage fighting occurred.

Alexander Antonov

He was the principle leader of the Tambov uprising

Alexandra Kollontai

She led the ‘Workers Opposition movement’ against the excesses of War Communism and produced a pamphlet in which she accused party leaders of losing touch with the proletariat.

Alexander Shlyapnikov

He led the ‘Workers Opposition movement’ against the excesses of War Communism. 

Stepan Petrechenko

He became a spokesperson of the Kronstadt uprising and produced a manifesto of their demands such as 

• Freedom of speech

• Freedom of assembly

• Right for trade unions 

State capitalism

(Communist dream) Industrial ownership remained private but state supervised (Vesenkha) resulting in hybrid economy; decree on land and decree on workers control appeased the russian people ; nationalisation begins with banks, railways, and major factories including Putilov; some nationalisation from below where workers seized control of factories (Communist dream)

New Economic Policy

(Communist dream) This was announced by Lenin and was the most successful economic policy. It relaxed war communism and central economic control; grain requisitioning replaced by a tax in kind; surplus grain could be sold on a free market; small private businesses legalised; Railways, banks and heavy industry under state control; public markets reopened

Tax in Kind

this was where the peasant surrendered an amount of grain for a fixed price.

Factionalism

These are organised groups withing a political party with their own viewpoints. Lenin banned it in the 10th party congress punishable by expulsion from the party to stifle criticisms. Democrat centralists and the workers’ opposition were immediately targeted and dissolved. This was followed by a major party purge

Nepmen

a class of get-rich-quick private businessmen who emerged after the NEP and flaunted their wealth

Party purge

following the ban on factionalism, party membership dropped from 730 000 to 500 000 members. It was made clear that decisions made by party leaders were to be followed not questioned

censorship

This became stricter where pre publication censorship was introduced. Any writings had to be submitted to the Glavlit (Main Administration for Affairs of Literature and Publishing houses) before they could be published.

removal of opposition

Mensheviks and SRs became very popular during strikes and revolts resulting in their parties being banned and c. 5000 Mensheviks were arrested. Censorship tightened and a significant number of show trials were held (34 SR leaders were condemned as terrorists and 11 were executed). Russian Orthodox leaders were executed and thousands of priests were imprisoned

violence

revolting peasants were dealt with harshly with whole rebel villages being destroyed. Nepmen were periodically harasses and imprisoned so it seemed capitalistic tendencies were under control. c.15 000 were executed by the Cheka after the attempted assassination of Lenin. The Cheka grew in importance during the NEP. clergy and locals who tried to protect their churches were dealt with violently

Provisional government

This was a non-elected committee created to run the country until a constituent assembly had been elected. It was dominated by Kadets (led my Milyukov) and the Prime minister was Prince Lvov, head of the union of zemstva.

Kerensky

A member of both the Petrograd soviet and the Provisional government who provided communication for the two. He gains political influence throughout 1917, eventually becoming prime minister

Milyukov

Head of the Kadets and he pointed out governmental flaws suggesting they had been appointed by the revolution itself

Petrograd soviet

Made up of socialist intellectuals, and representatives of the army and workers, this made up part of the dual authority and controlled the army. it had c.3000 members and aimed to protect the rights of soldiers and the working classes

Soviet Order No.1

This made it so the army would only follow the provisional government if the soviet agreed

Provisional government measures

These gave amnesty to political prisoners, abolished capital punishment, unrestricted freedoms of speech and assembly, gave equal rights to all citizens regardless of background, dissolved the tsarist police forces, and made elections of zemstva and local councils fully democratic. Lenin claimed these made Russia “the freest country in the world”

Stalin

He helped run the Bolsheviks in Lenin’s absence and spoke to the soviet to pressure peace talks

Lev Kamenev

He helped to run the Bolsheviks in Lenin’s absence and insisted on cooperation with the provisional government

Lenin

He was exiled in Europe so could only send “letters from afar”. He urged the war to become an international class war and made it clear Bolsheviks should not cooperate with the PG (he described it as a parliamentary-bourgois republic).

April theses

Lenin issued these which outlined his ideas for the Bolshevik party.

Kadets (left)

(liberals) Their policies included greater social reforms and more power to regional and local governments; wanted to continue the war to remain an important power; wanted to wait to redistribute land until the CA was elected but wait for after the war to elect it; and maintain the empire

Kadets (right)

(liberals) Led my Milyukov, they wanted the revolution to go no further; they wanted to continue the war to make territorial gains; wanted to wait to redistribute land until CA was elected, wanted to maintain the empire; and wanted the government to be democratically elected and centrally controlled

Socialist revolutionaries

(socialists) They wanted to cooperate with the PG to ensure people’s rights were not jeopardised; they were anxious to redistribute land but willing to wait; and they wanted more self-governed local control and Ukraine to have self government. Chernov and moderates favoured continuation of a defensive war to prevent continuation but left wing opposed its continuation.

Mensheviks

(socialists) They wanted to cooperate with the PG to ensure people’s rights were not jeopardised; they wanted to leave land redistribution until after the CA was elected; and they wanted more self-governed local control and Ukraine to have self government. Tsereteli and moderatess favoured continuation of a defensive war to prevent continuation but Martov and internationalists opposed its continuation.

Bolsheviks

(socialists) Stalin and Kamenev wanted to cooperate with the provisional government and end the war. However, Lenin urged they do not cooperate with the PG, turn the war into a class war to work for a true revolution, he wanted to overthrow the PG and give the soviet full authority, and give power to the workers

Milyukov crisis

This caused a serious rift between the soviet and PG. The soviet had issued an “Address to the people of the whole world” calling for peace which the PG declared it had accepted. However, Milyukov pledges to the allies that they will fight until Germany was defeated causing people to violently demonstrate against it. As a result, Milyukov and war minister Guchkov were forced to resign, Kerensky gained major political influence, places in the PG were offered to socialists but they were often isolated (viewed as compromising with the bourgeoisie) and Lenin disapproved of it.

June offensive

Kerensky campaigned for a continuation of the war despite no hope for success. In june, a major offensive was launched on the South Western front however there was incredibly low morale and the Bolsheviks encouraged them to disobey orders. This resulted in a massive failure as the Russian forces were no match for the Austrians who easily repelled them. Whole Russian regiments deserted or mutinied, General Kornilov demanded an end to the offensive, Lvov is replaced by Kerensky and Kornilov became commander in chief

Address to the people of the whole world

This was issued by the Soviet calling for Peace. The provisional government declared its agreement to it promising peace negotiations