SOC150 Midterm Flashcards

Measurement

describe + ascribing meaning to facts, concepts or what is being investigated; defining ones terms in an as clear way as possible

Concept + Conceptualization

• CONCEPT: image that we conjure up when we think of a cluster of related observations or ideas (eg: culture, class, masculinity, neoliberalism)

• CONCEPTUALZATION: writing out clear definitions for key concepts (part of process of measurement)

  • eg: hegemonic masculinity (conceptualized by R.W Connell): dominant form of masculinity in society that legitimises male power + maintains gender inequalities)

  • represents idealized form of masculinity that most men are expected to aspire to (few achieve it); abt relationships of power over traits; compared to subordinated masculinity associated w/ queer men

Reification

treating abstract concept/ human made idea as if it were a concrete/real thing (e.g: saying “society expects us to behave a certain way”)

Operationalizing

taking an abstract concept + deciding how we will measure it

• eg: often interviews will give choices: 1) Strongly agree, (2) Agree, (3) Disagree, and (4) Strongly disagree; higher score = higher of thing being studied

Indicators

characteristics that represent ideas that are being studied (used in operationalizing)

• eg: indicators of masculinity = fatherhood, being the breadwinner of the family

• eg: in a survey/interview a question abt work-family conflict would be “How often did you not have enough time for the important people in your life because of your job?”

  • question = indicator of the a work-life conflict

Process of Measurement

Reliability + Validity

• RELIABILITY = consistency; if same measure applied to same person, result will be same every time = measure is reliable

• VALIDITY = accuracy/social agreement; if same measure applied to diff ppl, all will understand it in same way = measure is valid

1991, 2016, 2021 Census (LEC 5 example of reliability + validity)

• 1991 census question: “To which ethnic or cultural group(s) did this person’s ancestors belong? Mark or specify as many as applicable” (4% responded that their ethnic origin is canadian)

• 2016 question: “What were the ethnic or cultural origins of this person’s ancestors?” (32% canadian)

• 2016 question: instead of giving list of potential ethnicities, a link was provided w over 500 ethnic origins (16% canadian)

no. of canadians fluctuated wildly over time; perhaps not reliable + valid?

Variable

grouping several characteristics called attributes

• attributes determine its level of measurement (nominal, ordinal, interval, ratio)

Nominal Measurement (a level of measurement)

measures are qualitative, exhaustive (incl. all elements/aspects), mutually exclusive (2+ events that cannot happen simultaneously); attributes are all equally as important

• eg: marital status measured as single, married, common-law, divorced, widowed

Ordinal Measures (a level of measurement)

can be rank ordered, but can’t determine mathematical difference between the attributes (often abstract concepts, like feelings)

• eg: socioeconomic class could be measured as working class, middle class, upper class

Interval Measures (a level of measurement)

rank ordered + quantitative, can mathematically measure distance between them BUT no ‘true zero’ (can’t say ratio of one attribute compared to another)

• eg: temperature- can’t say 100 deg = twice as hot as 50 deg.

Ratio Measures (a level of measurement)

quantifiable, mutually exclusive, exhaustive, rank ordered, equal distance and attributes hv true zero point

• eg: income measured in dollars, you can make zero dollars, and we know $40k is twice as much as $20k

• eg: age: you can be zero years old, and 12 years is twice as much as 6 years

What does it mean to say that Sociology is a Social Science?

uses quantitative methods (statistical analysis of survey data, etc) AND qualitative methods (interviews, etc) to answer research questions

Matching Claims to Evidence

use empirical evidence (rooted in scientific methods) to support/refute claims

• must consider many diff. scientific studies before drawing conclusions → then inform public policy + promote better public understanding of complex social phenomena

• eg:

  • Claim: Giving police more money creates safer neighbourhoods

  • Evidence: no consistent association betw. police funding + crime rates (using stat. analysis → found that majority of cities incr. police budget, but no relation to crime rates)

Ways sociologists use empirical methods to answer research questions

participant observation, interviews, sharing circles, statistical analysis

Who’s afraid of Sociology?

recent efforts to ban sociology in universities → instead, we should all be sociologists (equipped w sociological literacy in order to understand ourselves + the world around us better!)

Sociological Perspective (Sociological Literacy Framework)

(essential concepts)

• sociological eye: understanding sociology a distinctive discipline

• social structure: impact of social structures on human action

• socialization: relationship betw. self + human action

• stratification: patterns + effects of social inequality

• social change + reproduction: show social phenomena replicate + change

Sociological Toolbox (Sociological Literacy Framework)

(essential competencies)

• apply sociological theory → understand phenomena

• evaluate explanations of human behaviours + social phenomena

• apply scientific principles to understand social world

• evaluate quality of social scientific methods + data

• use sociological knowledge to inform policy debates + promote public understanding

Informal Observation (a way of knowing)

making observations without assessing accuracy of what we observed (eg: toronto is a very diverse city)

Selective Observation (a way of knowing)

only seeing what we want to see or assuming only patterns we experienced exist

Overgeneralisation (a way of knowing)

assuming broad patterns exist with limited observations

Authority (a way of knowing)

socially defined knowledge that may shape our beliefs about truth/untruth

Research Methods (a way of knowing)

organised, logical way of learning + know about social world

Ontology (+ interpretivist/social constructionist + positivist approaches)

beliefs abt nature of reality

• interpretivist/social constructionist approach: think reality is in eye of the beholder (our job is to understand others’ view of reality)

• positivist approach: only one true reality

Epistemology

study of origins of knowledge

• diff methods to uncover knowledge (interviews, observations, surveys, reading public reactions)

How is the Canadian Census taken?

• statistics canada conduct census of population every 5 years

• census = way to gather data abt ethnic/racial diversity @ local/national scales (visible minority grp grew frm 2001-2021)

• important source of quantitative data that sociologists use in their research, used to develop programs + services, analysed to make investment decisions (businesses), depended on to understand evolving needs of members of their community.

Basic + Applied Research, Public Sociology

• Basic Research: research from personal interest

• Applied Research: research frm beyond personal interest/for some purpose (eg: marketing firms conducting research on how to sell more product)

• Public Sociology: application of sociological theories + research to matters of public interest

Qualitative Research

collecting data thru field research, interviews, enthography; results shown as words, pictures

• gain in-depth understanding of small no. of cases

Quantitative Research

survey research, census analyses; results condensed into numbers

• less depth but focused on large no. of cases

What role should sociologists play in society?

need more sociologists who are trained in research methods to provide factual information/ reduce the spread of false info

Examples:

• Michael Burawoy advocates for more sociology in the public interest; argues that sociology has been divorced frm real world → sociologists talking to each other instead of informing policy + public

• Patricia Hill Collins advocates for empowering everyday people as intellectuals; Black female musicians, artists, and writers should be considered intellectuals because they represent the interests of Black women as a group.

• Craig Calhoun argues that academic sociologists are necessary to produce rigorous knowledge; they should not align too closely with political causes bc it makes public sociology lose objectivity

Intrinsic Cognitive Load

difficulty of material being learned (can’t be eliminated, only managed by breaking down material → presenting them in logical sequence)

Germane Cognitive Load

mental effort req. to learn + retain knowledge; can be incr. by actively engaging w material + engaging in higher order thinking

The Research Cycle

Inductive Reasoning

moving frm empirical observation (data collection) → general propositions (ie: moving frm specific (data) → general (theory))

Deductive Reasoning

test theory w/ empirical observation (general → specific)

Levels of Analysis (Micro, Meso, Macro Levels)

• Micro: indiv. + 1-on-1 interractions

• Meso: groups, communities, organisations

• Macro: large systems + structures (nations, economies)

Paradigm

analytic way of viewing world + humanity (ie: ontological + epistomological approaches)

Positivism (a paradigm)

objective explanation + prediction; society can be studied empirically + scientifically w/o biases

Interpretism/Social Constructionism

focuses on ways ppl understand themselves, others + world around them

Critical Approaches

focus on roles of power, inequality, social change; assumes that social science should be conducted with social change in mind

Postmodernism

challenges existence of truth

Conflict Theory

questions of power (who wins/loses in society) + how ppl struggle over limited resources

Functionalism

how social structures work tgt to produce order

Symbolic Interactionism

how meaning is created + negotiated thru interactions

Relationship between Theory and Empirical Observation

theories explain why social patterns exist (can be used to examine research questions)

Exploratory Research

• often @ early stages of research, done to test whether they should conduct a more extensive study

• used to learn what method to use in collecting data, how to best approach research subjects, what questions to ask

Descriptive Research

to describe/ define a particular phenomenon (often quantitative research)

Explanatory Research

to explain why particular phenomena work in the way that they do (cause + effects of phenomenon studied)

Defining Research Questions

when formulating one, must ask yourself if the question is…

1. EMPIRICAL? sociologist best equipped to answer empirical questions (that can be answered w/ real experience in world, rather than ethical/moral philosophy)

2. SOCIOLOGICAL? sociology interested in human grps, patterns, deviations frm social patterns

3. A QUESTION? should hv more than one answer, unbiased, considering relationships among multiple concepts

Causality

idea that one event results in occurrence of another

• to determine causality:

  1. relationship must be plausible

  2. cause must precede effect in time

  3. relationship must be nonspurious

Idiographic Research

tries to explain/describe phenomenon

• may hv to sacrifice breadth of understanding, BUT will gain much deeper understanding of phenomenon

Nomothetic Research

aims to provide general explanation of a topic

• sacrifice depth of understanding for breadth of understanding

Plausability

causal claim has to make sense (2 variables may correlate, but doesn’t mean that causal relationship is plausible)

Temporality

cause must precede effect in time

Spuriousness

association between 2 variables appears to be causal but can actually be explained by 3rd variable.

• eg: as ice cream sales go up, drowning rates also go up; this can be explained by the warmer weather, where ppl eat more ice cream + go swimming more

Correlation + Causation

• CORRELATION: 2 things related

• CAUSATION: one thing directly causes the other

Independent + Dependent Variable

• INDEPENDENT VARIABLE: variable causing another

• DEPENDENT VARIABLE: variable caused by another

Units of Analysis

main focus of study + determined by research questions

Units of Observation

item that you observe, measure, collect while trying to learn something abt unit of analysis (determined by data collection method)

Ecological Fallacy

when claims abt lower level unit of analysis made based on data frm higher level unit of analysis (e.g: claims made abt indiv., but only grp level data gathered)

Reductionism

when claims abt higher level unit made based on data frm lower level unit (e.g: claims abt grps based on indiv)

Hypothesis + Null Hypothesis

• HYPOTHESIS: statement (not always causal) describing researcher’s expectation regarding what he/she anticipates finding

  - describe expected relationship betw 2 variables

  - drawn frm theories

• NULL HYPOTHESIS: predicts no relationship betw variables being studied

Informed Consent

voluntary agreement to participate in research based on full understanding of research

Anonymity

researcher unable to link participants’ data w their identities (eg: anonymous surveys)

Confidentiality

only researcher can link participant w data + not publicly

3 Father Types (Committed, Conflicted, Receptive) who take paternal leave

1. Committed Father: proactively + consciously contest gender boundaries

2. Receptive Father: have egalitarian views but not as proactive as committed fathers

3. Conflicted Father: hold flexible views abt men/women roles when taking leave, but rigid views about children gender socialisation (eg: boys should be masculine)

Researchers’ Conflicts w/ the Law (maybe not on test?)

• researchers been subpoenaed (called to appear in court)

  • ex 1: Russel Ogden (1994) subpoenaed to appear before Vancouver Coroner’s Court; he conducted research into medically assisted suicide (eg: euthanasia) for HIV/AIDS patients + coroner believed Ogden knew identity of 2 ppl who assisted in a suicide

  • ex 2: UOttawa researchers Collete Parent + Christ Bruckert conducted research on sex workers. years later, one former interview subjects arrested+ charged w murder → police subpoenaed them to access interview transcript

    • Quebec denied police access to interview bc risk of jeopardising important research on sex work outweighed benefit to public safety

    • researcher-participant relationship = unique bc often hv little to offer participants besides interest + giving them opportunity for their voices to be heard

  • both researchers refused to hand over data!!

Qualitative vs Quantitative Approach

(both empirical + used @ diff points in research cycle to address same topics)

Triangulation

Using several/ a combination of different research strategies

Observational Terms

things we see just by looking at them (eg: height, race)

Indirect Observables

information obtained thru asking interview/survey questions (eg: income, birth place)

Scale

same as index BUT accounts for varying intensity

Index

type of measure that contains several indicators + used to summarise a general concept

Typology

Categorizes concepts into themes to simplify them.