MCAT Theories
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Newton's First Law
An object at rest stays at rest, and an object in motion stays in motion with the same speed and direction unless acted upon by an external force.
Newton's Second Law
Force equals mass times acceleration (F = ma).
Newton's Third Law
For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.
Law of Conservation of Energy
Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transformed.
Law of Conservation of Momentum
Total momentum is conserved in a closed system.
Hooke's Law
Force required to extend a spring is proportional to distance (F = -kx).
Archimedes' Principle
Buoyant force equals weight of fluid displaced.
First Law of Thermodynamics
Energy cannot be created or destroyed (AU = q + w).
Second Law of Thermodynamics
Entropy of isolated systems increases over time.
Third Law of Thermodynamics
Entropy approaches minimum as temperature approaches absolute zero.
Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
If two systems are in thermal equilibrium with a third, they're in thermal equilibrium with each other.
Charles' Law
Volume proportional to temperature at constant pressure (V ∞ T).
Boyle's Law
Pressure inversely proportional to volume at constant temperature (P × 1/V).
Gay-Lussac's Law
Pressure proportional to temperature at constant volume (P x T).
Avogadro's Law
Volume proportional to moles at constant temperature and pressure (V × n).
Ideal Gas Law
PV = nRT.
Snell's Law
n1sin(θ₁) = n2sin(θ₂) for light refraction.
Law of Reflection
Angle of incidence equals angle of reflection.
Doppler Effect
Frequency shift due to relative motion.
Brewster's Law
Light reflected from surface is completely polarized at Brewster's angle.
Malus' Law
Intensity of polarized light through analyzer varies as I = I₀cos²θ.
Coulomb's Law
Force between charges proportional to product of charges and inversely to distance squared.
Ohm's Law
Voltage equals current times resistance (V = IR).
Kirchhoff's Current Law
Sum of currents entering node equals sum leaving.
Kirchhoff's Voltage Law
Sum of voltages around loop equals zero.
Faraday's Law of Induction
Induced EMF proportional to rate of change of magnetic flux.
Lenz's Law
Induced current creates field opposing the change that produced it.
Biot-Savart Law
Magnetic field due to current element.
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
Cannot simultaneously know precise position and momentum.
Pauli Exclusion Principle
No two electrons in an atom can have identical quantum numbers.
Photoelectric Effect
Einstein's equation relating photon energy to work function (E = hf - φ).
de Broglie Wavelength
λ = h/p (matter has wave properties).
Hess's Law
Total enthalpy change independent of reaction pathway.
Le Chatelier's Principle
System at equilibrium shifts to counteract disturbance.
Raoult's Law
Vapor pressure of solution depends on mole fraction of solvent.
Henry's Law
Gas solubility proportional to partial pressure.
Colligative Properties
Depend on solute concentration, not identity.
Arrhenius Equation
Rate constant k = Ae^(-Ea/RT).
Graham's Law of Diffusion
Rate of diffusion inversely proportional to square root of molecular weight.
Hund's Rule
Electrons fill orbitals of equal energy with parallel spins before pairing.
Aufbau Principle
Electrons fill lowest energy orbitals first.
Beer-Lambert Law
Absorbance proportional to concentration and path length.
Markovnikov's Rule
In addition to H-X, hydrogen adds to carbon with more hydrogens.
Zaitsev's Rule
Most substituted alkene is major product in elimination.
Hammond Postulate
Transition state resembles nearest stable species.
Saytzeff Rule
Favors formation of most substituted alkene.
Woodward-Hoffmann Rules
Govern stereochemistry of pericyclic reactions.
Cahn-Ingold-Prelog Rules
System for specifying stereochemistry (R/S, E/Z).
Michaelis-Menten Kinetics
Enzyme kinetics equation relating rate to substrate concentration.
Henderson-Hasselbalch Equation
pH = pKa + log([A-]/[HA]).
Lineweaver-Burk Plot
Linearizes Michaelis-Menten equation.
Nernst Equation
Relates cell potential to standard potential and reaction quotient.
Gibbs Free Energy
ΔG = ΔH - TΔS.
Mendel's Law of Segregation
Allele pairs separate during gamete formation.
Mendel's Law of Independent Assortment
Different traits assort independently.
Mendel's Law of Dominance
Dominant alleles mask recessive ones.
Hardy-Weinberg Principle
Allele frequencies remain constant in absence of evolutionary forces.
Chargaff's Rules
In DNA, amount of A equals T, amount of G equals C.
Fick's Law of Diffusion
Diffusion rate proportional to concentration gradient and area.
Law of Mass Action
Rate proportional to product of reactant concentrations.
Pavlov's Classical Conditioning
Association between unconditioned and conditioned stimuli.
Skinner's Operant Conditioning
Behavior modified by consequences.
Thorndike's Law of Effect
Responses followed by satisfaction strengthen; those followed by discomfort weaken.
Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve
Exponential decrease in memory retention over time.
Gestalt Principles
Laws of perception (proximity, similarity, continuity, closure).
Piaget's Sensorimotor Stage
Understanding world through sensory experiences and motor actions (0-2 years).
Piaget's Preoperational Stage
Language development and symbolic thinking, egocentrism (2-7 years).
Piaget's Concrete Operational Stage
Logical thinking about concrete events, conservation (7-11 years).
Piaget's Formal Operational Stage
Abstract reasoning and hypothetical thinking (12+ years).
Erikson's Psychosocial Stages
Eight stages of psychosocial development across lifespan.
Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust (Infancy from birth to 18 months)
Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt(Toddler years from 18 months to three years)
Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt (Preschool years from three to five)
Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority (Middle school years from six to 11)
Stage 5: Identity vs. Confusion (Teen years from 12 to 18)
Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young adult years from 18 to 40)
Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle age from 40 to 65)
Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair (Older adulthood from 65 to death)
Kohlberg's Moral Development
Pre-conventional, conventional, and post-conventional stages.
Vygotsky's Zone of Proximal Development
Gap between what learner can do alone vs. with help.
Bandura's Social Learning Theory
Learning occurs through observation and modeling.
Bem's Self-Perception Theory
People develop attitudes by observing their behavior.
Festinger's Cognitive Dissonance Theory
Psychological discomfort from contradictory beliefs.
Fundamental Attribution Error
Overestimating personality and underestimating situational influences.
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
Physiological, safety, love/belonging, esteem, self-actualization.
Hawthorne Effect
People modify behavior when they know they're being observed.
Thomas Theorem
'If men define situations as real, they are real in their consequences.'
Weber's Law
Just noticeable difference proportional to stimulus intensity.
Signal Detection Theory
Framework for analyzing decision-making under uncertainty.
Ainsworth's Attachment Theory
Classified attachment styles as secure, anxious-ambivalent, and avoidant.
Baddeley's Working Memory Model
Multi-component model with phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and central executive.
Baumrind's Parenting Styles
Authoritarian, authoritative, permissive, and uninvolved.
Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Systems Theory
Development influenced by microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem.
Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion
Emotional experience and physiological response occur simultaneously.
Cooley's Looking-Glass Self
Self-concept develops through how we think others perceive us.
James-Lange Theory of Emotion
Physiological changes precede and cause emotional experiences.
Jung's Analytical Psychology
Collective unconscious, archetypes, persona, anima/animus.
Kubler-Ross's Stages of Grief
Denial, anger, bargaining, depression, acceptance.
Milgram's Obedience Studies
People tend to obey authority figures even when asked to harm others.
Schachter-Singer Two-Factor Theory
Emotions result from physiological arousal and cognitive label.
Seligman's Learned Helplessness
Perceived inability to control outcomes leads to passivity.
Tajfel's Social Identity Theory
Self-concept derived from perceived membership in social groups.
Asch's Conformity Experiments
Demonstrating power of group pressure on individual judgments.
Rosenthal & Jacobson's Pygmalion Effect
Teacher expectations influence student performance.
Zajonc's Social Facilitation Theory
Presence of others enhances performance on simple tasks but impairs complex task performance.
Merton's Strain Theory
Social structures may pressure individuals toward deviance.
Labeling Theory
People become what they are labeled or classified as.
Social Constructionism
Knowledge is created by social interactions within cultures.