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Thinking
Any mental activity or processing of information.
Cognitive miser
A person who tries to reduce mental effort.
System 1 thinking
Automatic, quick, intuitive thinking.
System 2 thinking
Controlled, effortful thinking.
Heuristics
Mental shortcuts or rules of thumb that can be inaccurate.
Representative heuristic
Guessing how likely X is, based on how superficially similar it is to Y.
Availability heuristic
Guessing how likely X is, based on how easily one can think of an instance where X occurs.
Cognitive biases
Systematic errors in thinking.
Hindsight bias
Overestimating one's ability to have predicted known outcomes.
Confirmation bias
Tendency to seek out information that aligns with our beliefs and neglecting conflicting evidence.
Top-down processing
Filling in gaps of information based on our preexisting knowledge.
Schemas
Knowledge of how particular actions, objects, and ideas are related.
Bottom-up processing
Starting with nothing, then receiving information and building opinion from there.
Decision making
The process of selecting between a set of possible options.
Framing
How information is presented; its presentation can influence decisions.
Problem solving
Creating a cognitive strategy to accomplish a goal.
Functional fixedness
Difficulty conceptualizing that an object can be used for multiple purposes.
Insight
Suddenly realizing a solution to a problem.
Language
Combines symbols (words, gestures) to create meaning and follows agreed-upon rules.
Phoneme
The sounds used in a language.
Morpheme
Smallest unit that provides information in a language.
Syntax
Rules that govern how sounds should be combined to form sentences.
Extralinguistic information
Parts of communication that exist outside of the language content but influence interpretation.
Dialect
Differences in the use of the same language by different groups.
Bilingualism
Being proficient and fluent in speaking and comprehending two distinct languages.
Critical periods
Time frames when individuals can learn a language better with earlier exposure.
Intelligence
Reflection of your senses; knowledge comes through the senses.
Fluid intelligence
Ability to learn new ways to solve problems.
Crystallized intelligence
Knowledge acquired over time.
Multiple intelligences
Howard Gardner's theory that each type of intelligence is relatively independent.
Triarchic model
Robert Sternberg’s division of intelligence into analytical, practical, and creative intelligence.
Self-reports
A method that does not work well for measuring intelligence due to poor metacognition.
Deviation IQ
Compares each person to what is normal for their age, with an average score of 100.
Flynn Effect
Average IQ scores rise by approximately 3 points every decade.
Mental giftedness
Top 2% of IQ; individuals tend to occupy higher occupations.
Intellectual disability
Deficits in intellectual functioning and adaptive functioning that onset during childhood.
Nature-nurture debate
Discussion on the impact of genetic predisposition versus environmental influences on development.
Scaffolding
Caretakers work with children to guide them during tasks and learning opportunities.
Personal fable
Adolescents' belief that they are special and unique compared to others.
