Memory & Cognition 💭

Cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

Metacognition

cognition about our cognition; keeping track of and evaluating our mental processes.

Concepts

a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

Prototype

a mental image or best example of a category → prototypical bird for me is crow

Schemas

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information

Assimilate

interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas

Accommodation

adapting our current schemas (understanding) to incorporate new information

Creativity

the ability to produce new and valuable ideas

Convergent thinking

narrowing the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution

Divergent Thinking

expanding the number of possible problem solutions; creative thinking that diverges in different directions

Functional Fixedness

occurs when our prior experiences inhibit our ability to find creative solutions

Executive functions

cognitive skills that work together, enabling us to generate, organize, plan, and implement goal-directed behavior

Algorithms

a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. Contrasts with the usually speedier — but also more error-prone — use of heuristics

Heuristics

a simple thinking strategy — a mental shortcut— that often allows us to make judgements and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier also more error-prone than an algorithm

Insight

a sudden realization of a problem’s solution; contrasts within strategy-based solutions

Confirmation Bias

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

Fixation

in cognition, the inability to see a problem from a new perspective; an obstacle to problem solving

Mental Set

a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past

Intuition

an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as conscious reasoning

Representative Heuristic

judging the likelihood of events in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information

Availability Heuristic

judging the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps of their vividness), we presume such events are less common

Overconfidence

the tendency to be more confident than correct— to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgements

Planning Fallacy

overestimating our future leisure time and income

Sunk-cost fallacy

the act of sticking to our original plan because we’ve already invested our time,even if switching to a new approach could save us time

Belief Perseverance

the persistence of one’s initial conceptions even after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited

Framing

the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgements

Nudge

framing choices in a way that encourages people to make beneficial decisions

Memory

the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information

Recall

a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test

Recognition

a measure of memory in which the person identifies items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test

Relearning

a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again

Encode

the process of getting information into the memory system — for example, by extracting meaning

Store

the process of retaining encoded information over time

Retrieve

the process of getting information out of memory storage

Parallel processing

processing multiple aspects of a stimulus or problem simultaneously

Sensory Memory

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

Short term memory

briefly activated memory of a few items (such as digits of a phone number while calling) that is later stored or forgotten

Long-term memory

the relatively permanent and limitless archive of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences

working memory

a newer understanding of short-term memory; conscious, active processing of both (1) incoming sensory information and (2) information retrieved from long-term memory

Central executive

a memory component that coordinates the activities of the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad

Phonological loop

a memory component that briefly hold auditory information

Visuospatial sketchpad

a memory component that briefly holds information about objects’ appearance and location in space

Neurogenesis

the formation of new neurons

Long-term potentiation

an increase in a nerve cell’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation; a neural basis for learning and memory

Explicit Memory/Declarative memory

retention of facts and experiences that we can consciously know and “declare”

Effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

Automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of familiar or well-learned information, such as sounds, smells, and word meanings

Implicit memory/Non declarative memory

retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection

Iconic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

Echoing memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds

Chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically

Mnemonics

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices.

Spacing effect

the tendency for disturbed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through masses study or practice

Testing effect - Retrieval Practice effect - test—enhanced learning

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading information.

Shallow processing

encoding on a basic level, based on the structure or appearance of words

Deep processing

encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention

Semantic memory

explicit memory of facts and general knowledge; one of our two conscious memory systems

Episodic memory

explicit memory of personally experienced events; one of our two conscious memory systems

Hippocampus

a neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit (conscious) memories — of facts and events —for storage

Memory consolidation

the neural storage of a long-term memory

Flashbulb memories

a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event

Priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory

Encoding specificity principle

the idea that cues and contexts specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping us recall it

Mood congruent memory

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad mood

Serial Position effect

our tendency to recall best the last items in a list initially (a recency effect), and the first items in a list after a delay (a primacy effect)

Interleaving

a retrieval practice strategy that involves mixing the study of different topics

Anterograde amnesia

an inability to form new memories

Retrograde amnesia

an inability to remember information from one’s past

Proactive interference

the forward-acting disruptive effect of older learning on the recall of new information

Retroactive interference

the backward-acting disruptive effect of newer learning on the recall of old information

Repression

in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety- arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories.

Reconsolidation

a process in which previously stored memories, when retrieved, are potentially altered before being stored again

Misinformation effect

occurs when a memory has been corrupted by misleading information

source amnesia

faulty memory for how, when, or where information was learned or imagined (as when misattributing information to a wrong source). Source amnesia, along with the misinformation effect, is at the heart of many false memories

Deja vu

that eerie sense that “I’ve experienced this before.” Cues from current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience