Cinco de Bio

Isotope

Same number of protons but different number of neutrons

Carbohydrates

CHO

Proteins

CHON

Lipids

CHOP

Nucleic Acids

CHONP

Ionic bond

Formed between two atoms when one or more electrons are transferred from one atom to another

Covalent bond

Formed when electrons are shared between atoms

Nonpolar covalent

Covalent bond with equally shared electrons

Polar covalent

Covalent bond with unequally shared electrons

Basic/alkaline

High pH; release hydroxide ions (OH-)

Acidic

Low pH; release hydrogen ions (H+)

Note: pH scale is logarithmic (pH of 3 is 10 times more acidic than pH of 4)

Note: pH scale is logarithmic (pH of 3 is 10 times more acidic than pH of 4)

Dehydration synthesis

Formation of polymers; a water molecule is lost

Hydrolysis

Polymers are broken down into monomers; water is added to break the bond between the monomers

Starch

Polysaccharide that stores sugar in plants

Glycogen

Polysaccharide that stores sugar in animals

Cellulose

Polysaccharide that’s a part of cell walls in plants

Amino acids

Organic molecules that serve as the building blocks of proteins

Note: amino acids differ only in the R-group (aka side chain)

Note: amino acids differ only in the R-group (aka side chain)

Hydrophobic

Non-polar and uncharged

Hydrophilic

Polar and charged

Dipeptide

Two joined amino acids

Peptide bond

Bond between two amino acids

Protein folding primary structure

Linear sequence of amino acids

Protein folding secondary structure

Coiled (alpha helix) or zigzagged (beta-pleated sheet) version of the primary structure

Protein folding tertiary structure

Amino acids that were initially far away from each other are now able to interact with each other; minimizes free energy and locks the molecule in a stable 3D shape

Protein folding quaternary structure

Several different polypeptide chains interact with each other

Chaperone proteins (chaperonins)

Help protein folding

Saturated fatty acid

Straight and stackable

Unsaturated fatty acid

Bendy and not stackable

Cholesterol

Lipid that increases membrane fluidity (except at very high temperatures when it helps to hold things together instead)

Prokaryote

Cytoplasm, free DNA in the nucleoid, cell wall, plasma membrane, small ribosomes, flagella, capsule

Eukaryote

Plasma membrane, nucleus, ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, golgi complex, mitochondria, lysosomes, centrioles, vacuoles, peroxisomes, cytoskeleton, and cilia and flagella

Plasma membrane

Outer envelope; phospholipid bilayer

Nucleus

Largest organelle, home of DNA

Ribosomes

Site of protein synthesis

Endoplasmic reticulum

Provides mechanical support while aiding in intracellular transport (rough er compartmentalizes the cell, smooth er makes lipids, hormones, and steroids and breaks down toxic chemicals

Golgi complex

Modifies, processes, and sorts products from rough er protein synthesis; package in vesicles and send to plasma membrane

Mitochondria

Convert energy from organic molecules into useful energy for the cell (ATP)

Lysosomes

Carry digestive enzymes to break down old, worn out organelles, debris, or large ingested particles

Centrioles

Produce microtubules for cell division

Vacuoles

Fluid-filled sacs that store water, food, waste, salts, or pigments

Peroxisomes

Detoxify various substances, producing H2O2 as a byproduct

Cytoskeleton

Holds a cell together and enables it to keep its shape

Cilia and flagella

Propel cells

Facilitated transport

Proteins act as tunnels through plasma membrane

Simple diffusion

The molecule that is diffusing is hydrophobic; non polar molecule drifts through the cell membrane without trouble

Facilitated diffusion

Requires help on channel-type protein

Osmosis

Diffusion of water

Active transport

Movement against the natural flow; ex. sodium potassium pump

Endocytosis

Cell membrane engulfs the substance

Bulk flow

One-way movement of fluids brought about by pressure

Dialysis

Diffusion of solutes across a selectively permeable membrane

Exocytosis

Transport of large particles out of the cell

Bioenergetics

Study of how cells release energy

First law of thermodynamics

Energy cannot be created or destroyed; the sum of the energy in the universe is constant

Second law of thermodynamics

Energy transfer leads to less organization; the universe tends toward disorder (entropy)

Note: in order to power cellular processes, energy input must exceed energy loss

Note: in order to power cellular processes, energy input must exceed energy loss

Exergonic reactions

Products have less energy than the reactants; energy is released

Endergonic reactions

Require an input of energy

Activation energy

Energy needed to reach transition state

Enzymes

Biological catalysts that speed up reactions

Enzyme specificity

Each enzyme catalyzes only one kind of reaction

Substrate

Targeted molecules in enzyme reactions

Active site

Location of enzyme-substrate reaction

Induced fit

Enzyme has to change its shape slightly to accommodate the shape of the substrates

Cofactors

Help enzymes catalyze reactions

Temperature and enzymes

Too hot means denatured, too cold means not moving

Saturation point

Concentration where all of the enzyme in a reaction is bound by substrate

Allosteric site

Enzymes can be turned on or off by things that bind to them at these sites or active sites

Competitive inhibitor

Blocks the intended substrate from getting into the active site (same shape)

Allosteric inhibitor

Inhibitor binds to the allosteric site

Noncompetitive inhibition

Distorts the enzyme shape so it can’t function

Adenosine triphosphate equation

ATP —> ADP + Pi [loose phosphate] + energy

Cellular respiration

Process of breaking down sugar and making ATP

Photosynthesis

Process by which light is converted to energy; 6CO2 + 6H2O —> C6H12O6 + 6O2

Note: prokaryotic photosynthesis likely contributed to the production of oxygen in the atmosphere

Note: prokaryotic photosynthesis likely contributed to the production of oxygen in the atmosphere

Light dependent reactions

Photons (energy units) of sunlight activate chlorophyll and excite electrons; these electrons are passed down a series of electron carriers, ultimately producing ATP and NADPH

Light independent reactions

Products of light dependent reaction (ATP and NADH) combine with CO2 to make carbohydrates; along the way, water is split and oxygen gets released

Phosphorylation

Light energy is used to make ATP

Absorption spectrum

Shows how well a certain pigment absorbs electromagnetic radiation

Emission spectrum

Gives information on which wavelengths are emitted by a pigment

Chlorophyll a

Absorbs mostly violet to blue light plus red

Chlorophyll b

Absorbs violet to green light

Cartenoids

Absorb mostly violet to green-yellow light

Photolysis

To replenish the electrons in the thylakoid, water is split into oxygen, hydrogen ions, and electrons

Note: as the energized electrons from photosystem II travel down the electron transport chain, they pump hydrogen ions into the thylakoid lumen; a protein gradient is established; as the hydrogen ions move back into the strong through ATP synthase, ATP is produced; after the electrons leave photosystem II, they go to photosystem I, where they are passed through a second electron transport chain until they reach the final electron acceptor NADP+ to make NADPH

Note: as the energized electrons from photosystem II travel down the electron transport chain, they pump hydrogen ions into the thylakoid lumen; a protein gradient is established; as the hydrogen ions move back into the strong through ATP synthase, ATP is produced; after the electrons leave photosystem II, they go to photosystem I, where they are passed through a second electron transport chain until they reach the final electron acceptor NADP+ to make NADPH

Thylakoid membranes

Location of light reactions of photosynthesis

Carbon fixation

CO2 from the air is converted into carbohydrates; occurs in the stroma of the leaf

Calvin cycle

Dark reactions of photosynthesis (light-independent)

Input of light-dependent reactions

Photons and H2O

Output of light-dependent reactions

NADPH, ATP, and O2

Input of light-independent reactions/calvin cycle

3CO2, 9 ATP, and 6NADPH

Output of light independent reactions/calvin cycle

Sugar

Photorespiration

Wasteful process that uses ATP and O2, produced more CO2, and doesn’t produce any sugars; occurs when less CO2 is available and O2 accumulates

Cellular respiration equation

C6H12O6 + 6O2 —> 6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP

Aerobic respiration

Production of ATP in the presence of oxygen

Anaerobic respiration

Production of ATP in the absence of oxygen

Aerobic respiration steps

1. Glycolysis

2. Formation of acetyl-CoA

3. Krebs cycle (aka citric acid cycle)

4. Oxidative phosphorylation (electron transport chain and chemiosmosis)

5. Note: in the first three stages, glucose is broken down and energy molecules are made; in the fourth stage, energy is unloaded and used to make ATP