Legal, Moral, Cultural and Ethical Issues

Made from Ada Comp. Sci. and P.M.T. notes

Morals

• Principles that an individual uses to make decisions about what is right and wrong

• Impacts how we choose to behave and the decisions we make

Ethics

• A set of shared values and beliefs that affect what we view as morally right and wrong

Ethical

Deemed to have a positive impact based on our ethics

Society

One or more groups of people that exists with shared beliefs, practices, and ethics.

Culture

• The shared beliefs, practices, and ethics of a group of people within a society

• Society is multi-____: there are multiple groups with different but overlapping beliefs, practices and ethics

Automatic system

A system programmed to operate without a human providing inputs for each operation

Automomous machines

• Self-sufficient machines that require no human intervention.

• They can learn and adjust to their changing environment

• AI and machine learning are being used in the developement of ____

Machine learning

A way of using large data sets (big data) to train AI by analysing the data in order to make more accurate predictions about what to output for a particular input.

Artificial intelligence (AI)

The ability of a computer to perform a task that would usually require human intelligence, cognitive ability and a grasp of abstract ideas

Bias

A disproportionate balance in favour of or against an idea or thing

Algorithmic bias

• When the predicted output is far from the actual output

• The model does not reflect the real world relationship between the input data and what it’s predicting

• This term is used interchangably with prediction bias

Prediction bias

When a alogrithm / model favours one output over others.

Causes of algorithmic bias

Caused by training data that doesn’t reflect reality. This can be because the training data is:

• Inaccurate

• Insufficient or not representative of all possible outcomes

• Reflective of existing prejudices

How can you reduce the energy consumption of computer device and monitors?

Energy consumption can be reduced by:

• Turning the device off when it is not in use.

• Lowering brightness of the monitor

• Activating power-saving / energy-saving mode on the monitor. This automatically dims or turns of the display after a certain period of innactivity

Environmental impacts of data centres

• They consume enormous quantities of energy to operate their servers and their cooling systems. As such they contribute to burning of fossil fuels and global warming.

• The cooling systems use massive amounts of cooling fluid each year, and this water consumption can contribute to drought.

Upgrade culture

The cycle that sees most cunsumers replacing their devices (such as smart phones) every few years.

Planned obsolescence

When device manufacturers design or make their devices unfashionable or no longer usable before the device has actually reached its end of life

Environmental impacts of computer manufacturing

• Computers use rare materials. Upgrade culture has caused high demand for these materials and deposits have become more and more depleted

• Materials are often bought from companies with the lowest price. To maintain a proftit margin, unethical mining practices are often used. This can lead to landscapes being permanantly altered and wildlife habitats being destroyed.

• Conumes large amount of energy, contributing to the burning of fossil fuels and therefore gloabal warming

• Causes pollution

  • Manufcaturing facilities emit harmful chemicals and pollutants into the atmosphere.

  • Products often shipped internationaly - fuel used during transport

  • Products often packaged in plastic which is not always recycled

Potential benefits of technology for the environment

• Can help distribute energy on a power grid more efficiently, reducing the amount of energy wasted

• Vehicle engine management systems improving fuel efficiency and reducing emissions

• Remote working reducing emissions from commuting

Give two effects on businesses of computers becoming part of the workforce.

• Higher productivity

• Lower unit costs

• Lower costs of renting

• Lower labour costs

Uses of automated decision-making

• Targeted feeds (social media)

• Application processes (jobs, mortgages, loans)

• Power distribution systems

• Driverless cars

• Stock trading

• Plant automation systems

Describe how expert systems work

• Expert systems consist of a knowledge base made up of a set of facts and rules.

• This is used to build an inference engine which is interrogated to find diagnoses.

Applications of AI

• Neural networks

• Expert systems

• Voice recognition

Censorship

The act of suppressing the content that people are able to view, publish and access

What is the Free Internet?

The idea of an Internet where nothing is filtered at all, in line with the principle of freedom of speech

How is censorship used within schools?

• Pupils may be prevented from accessing unsuitable material.

• May be used to maintain high productivity and prevent distractions.

Arguments in favour of surveillance systems

• Useful for social security purposes and detecting crime.

• Needed to trace and punish criminal activity.

Name given to the process of analysing large data sets to uncover hidden trends

Data mining

Three things web designers must take into account when designing a website and why

Must consider the following to make a website accessible to all:

• Colour paradigms

• Layout

• Character set

Piracy

The illegal access or use of copyrighted work without the permission of the copyright holder

Legislation related to how a users data can be used by companies and the government

Data Protection Act

Data controller

Person within an organisation who determines what data an organisation collects and how it is collected, processed and stored.

Data commisioner

Independent public body that has the power to enforce the Data Protection Act

Categories of data covered by the data protection act

• Personal data

• Sensitive data

Personal data

Any data which can be used to identify a living person or which can be used in combination with other data to identify a living person

Examples of personal data

• Name

• Address

• Banking details

• Date of birth

• Financial transactions

Data subject

The person which the data is about

Examples of sensitive data

• Nationality

• Ethnicity

• Political beliefs

• Trade union membership

• Genetics

• Biometrics

• Health

• Sexual orientation

8 principles of the data protection act

• Only relevant data is held

• Data is collected and used fairly and inside the law

• Only used for the registered purpose it was intended

• Kept accurate and up to date

• Kept safe and secure

• Adequate, relevant and not excessive

• Not kept longer than is necessary

• No transfer outside the EU unless the country has data protection

7 Rights of the data subject

• Right of subject access

• Right of correction

• Right to prevent distress

• Right to prevent direct marketing

• Right to prevent automatic decisions

• Right of complaint to the Information Commissioner

• Right to compensation DEOS

Legislation related to the malicious use of computers

Computer Misuse Act

4 actions the Computer Misuse Act make illegal

• Unauthorised access to a computer system - e.g.hacking

• Unauthorised access to digital materials with the intent to commit further crime - e.g. planting a virus or other forms of malware

• Unauthorised modification of data - e.g., changing or deleting files

• Making, supplying or obtaining tools used to commit computer misuse offences

Maximum penalty for Unautharised access

• Fine: Up to £5,000

• Prison: Up to six months

Maximum penalty for unauthorised access with the intent to commit further crime

CFC:

• Fine: Unlimited

• Prison: Up to five years

Maximum penalty for unautharised modification of data

UMD:

• Fine: Unlimited

• Prison: Up to five years

Maximum penalty for making, supplying or obtaining tools used to commit computer misuse offences

• Fine: Unlimited

• Prison: Up to ten years

Legislation that protects peoples/ organisations original works

Copyright, Designs and Patents Act

Copyright, Design and Patents Act

Legislation that allows an individual or organisation that has created a piece of original work, e.g. a book or painting, the right to control the use of their work. Digital assets are included under original work

What does the Copyright, Design and Patents Act protect

• Brand names

• Inventions

• Product designs

• Original works

Interlectual property

Anything you create using your mind - for example, a story, invention, artistic work or symbol.

What does copyright protect?

___ protects original works

How does copyright work

• Copyright is automatic but time limited

• You need permission to use copyrighted material

Define copyright

• The rights a creator has over their own work.

• Allows the owner to decide if and how others can use their work

Define patents

• An exclusive right granted for an invention

• Provides the owner with the right to decide if or how their invention can be used by others.

Software licences

• Up to the copyright owner to decide if and what type of ___ to grant.

• Different ___ grant users different rights

What do patents protect?

____ protect ideas and inventions

Legislation that covers investigation and surveillance by public bodies

Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act

Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act

• Legislation that allows public bodies (e.g. police and security services) with appropriate authorisation to monitor communications and internet activities.

• Empowers and limits the extent public bodies can use digital surveilance

• Controversial as some people feel that the Act is an invasion of privacy ( a “snoopers charter”) and is often improperly used

What rights does the Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act give to certain public bodies

Allows ___ to:

• Monitor of electronic communications

• Monitor an individual's internet activities

• Carry out (mass) technological surveilence

• Force users to hand over encryption keys

• Prevent the existence of interception warrants being revealed in court

• Demand that ISPs provide access to customer communications, without telling the customer

• Demand that ISPs install equipment that facilitates surveillance

This requires permission from a suitable level (varies from magistrates court up to government cabinet)

What must ISPs do under the terms of the Regulation of the Investigatory Powers Act

• Provide access to digital communications, digital communication archives and internet activities when asked.

• Implement hardware and software systems that facilitate the surveillance of digital communications.