Memory 2.3-2.7 New CED

memory

the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information.

recall

a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.

recognition

a measure of memory in which the person identifies items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test.

relearning

a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again.

encoding

the process of getting information into the memory system—for example, by extracting meaning.

storage

the process of retaining encoded information over time.

retrieval

the process of getting information out of memory storage.

parallel processing

processing many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions.

sensory memory

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system.

short-term memory

activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as digits of a phone number while calling, before the information is stored or forgotten.

long-term memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.

working memory

a newer understanding of short-term memory that adds conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory.

explicit memory

retention of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare." (Also called declarative memory.)

effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort.

automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings.

implicit memory

retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection. (Also called nondeclarative memory.)

iconic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second.

echoic memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds.

chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically.

mnemonics [nih-MON-iks]

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices.

spacing effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice.

testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information. Also sometimes referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning.

shallow processing

encoding on a basic level, based on the structure or appearance of words.

deep processing

encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention.

semantic memory

explicit memory of facts and general knowledge; one of our two conscious memory systems (the other is episodic memory).

episodic memory

explicit memory of personally experienced events; one of our two conscious memory systems (the other is semantic memory).

hippocampus

a neural center located in the limbic system; helps process for storage explicit (conscious) memories of facts and events.

memory consolidation

the neural storage of a long-term memory.

long-term potentiation (LTP)

an increase in a cell's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation; a neural basis for learning and memory.

priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response.

encoding specificity principle

the idea that cues and contexts specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping us recall it.

mood-congruent memory

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood.

serial position effect

our tendency to recall best the last (recency effect) and first (primacy effect) items in a list.

anterograde amnesia

an inability to form new memories.

retrograde amnesia

an inability to retrieve information from one's past.

proactive interference

the forward-acting disruptive effect of older learning on the recall of new information.

retroactive interference

the backward-acting disruptive effect of newer learning on the recall of old information.

repression

in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories.

misinformation effect

occurs when misleading information has distorted one's memory of an event.

source amnesia

faulty memory for how, when, or where information was learned or imagined. (Also called source misattribution.) Source amnesia, along with the misinformation effect, is at the heart of many false memories.

déjà vu

that eerie sense that "I've experienced this before." Cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience.

cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.

Multi-store Model of Memory

The memory model that visualizes memory as a system consisting of multiple memory stores through which a stream of data flows for processing.

Forgetting Curve

A graph showing retention and forgetting over time.

massed practice

a practice schedule in which studying continues for long periods, without interruption. Commonly referred to as "cramming."

distributed practice

Technique in which items to be learned are repeated at intervals over a period of time.

elaborative rehearsal

a method of transferring information from STM into LTM by making that information meaningful in some way. Often involves visualization.