spring final lab a&p

1. Renal artery

2. Segmental arteries

3. Interlobar arteries

4. Arcuate arteries

5. Cortical radiate arteries

6. Afferent arterioles

What is the correct order of blood flow through the renal blood vessels?

1. Collecting duct

2. Papillary duct

3. Minor calyx

4. Major calyx

5. Renal pelvis

What is the draining ducts that follow the distal convoluted tubule of the nephron

• Glomerulus: capillary network where blood begins

• Bowman’s capsule: a surrounding structure that collects the filtrate from the glomerulus

pt 1) two main parts of the nephron : Renal Corpuscle

• Proximal convoluted tubule (PCT): reasorbs nutrients, water, and ions

• Loop of Henle: helps concentrate urine by regulating water and salt absorption.

pt 2) two main parts of the nephron : Renal Tubule

• A specialized structure in the nephron that regulates blood pressure and filtration rate.

• Located between the afferent arteriole and distal convoluted tubule, near the glomerulus.

• Secretes renin to increase blood pressure when needed.

• Helps regulate glomerular filtration rate (GFR) to maintain kidney stability.

What is the Juxtaglomerular apparatus

Retroperitoneally (behind the peritoneum) ✔ This positioning protects the ureters while they transport urine from the kidneys to the bladder.

In relation to the peritoneum where do the ureters run?

Peristalsis – Wave-like muscle contractions in the ureters propel urine from the kidneys to the bladder.

What process allows for the forceful movement of urine to the bladder?

A triangular area in the bladder formed by the ureter and urethra openings. ✔ Helps detect bladder fullness and maintain urine flow direction.

What is the trigone?

✔ Ureteral openings function as one-way valves. ✔ Bladder pressure compresses the ureter openings, stopping backflow.

In what two ways is urine prevented from back flowing into the ureters?

✔ Male: Longer (20 cm), carries urine & semen, passes through prostate & penis. ✔ Female: Shorter (4 cm), carries only urine, higher UTI risk.

How do the male and female urethra differ?

✔ Detects glucose, ketones, proteins, blood, leukocytes, pH, bilirubin, and more. ✔ Helps diagnose diabetes, kidney issues, infections, liver problems, and hydration levels.

What does a urinalysis measure in the urine?

Diabetes Mellitus, kidney disease, or hormonal imbalance.

What might glucose in urine indicate about a patient’s health?

Diabetes, starvation, fasting, keto diet, severe illness, or stress.

What might ketones in urine indicate about a patient’s health?

✔ Kidney filtration efficiency. ✔ Plasma clearance measures how fast a substance is removed from blood. ✔ GFR assesses how much filtrate the kidneys produce per minute.

What does a plasma clearance test / glomerular filtration rate (GFR) measure?

✔ Regulates water balance, reduces urine output, increases kidney water reabsorption

What is the function of ADH (Antidiuretic Hormone)?

✔ High blood osmolarity → Detected by hypothalamic osmoreceptors. ✔ Low blood pressure/volume → Detected by baroreceptors in heart & vessels. ✔ Dehydration or blood loss → ADH conserves water & constricts vessels.

What conditions stimulate the release of ADH (Antidiuretic Hormone), and where is this detected?

Regulates sodium and potassium balance, increases blood pressure, promotes water retention.

What is the function of aldosterone?

Renin → Angiotensin I → Angiotensin II → Aldosterone release from adrenal cortex

What is the formation cycle of aldosterone?

Low blood pressure, low sodium levels, dehydration, blood loss, sympathetic activation.

What conditions trigger renin release?

✔ Regulates blood pressure & fluid balance. ✔ Starts RAS by converting angiotensinogen → angiotensin I → angiotensin II. ✔ Leads to aldosterone release for sodium & water retention.

What is the function of renin?

✔ Converts angiotensin I → angiotensin II to raise blood pressure. ✔ Stimulates aldosterone for sodium & water retention. ✔ Constricts blood vessels to improve circulation. ✔ Essential for RAAS regulation.

What is the angiotensin converting enzyme’s function?

Released from adrenal cortex (zona glomerulosa). ✔ Causes vasoconstriction → Increases blood pressure. ✔ Stimulates ADH → Promotes water retention & reduces urine output.

Where is aldosterone released and what effects does it have on constriction of arterioles and ADH?

✔ Reduces blood pressure & volume by increasing sodium & water excretion. ✔ Inhibits aldosterone, ADH, and renin. ✔ Dilates blood vessels, lowering vascular resistance

What is the function of atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP)?

✔ High blood pressure or increased blood volume. ✔ Detected by stretch receptors in the atria. ✔ Helps remove excess sodium & fluid from the body.

What conditions stimulate ANP release, and where is it detected?

✔ A continuous digestive tube from mouth to anus. ✔ Processes food, absorbs nutrients, and eliminates waste. ✔ Includes mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small & large intestines, rectum, and anus.

What is the alimentary canal?

✔ A digestive organ that aids digestion but is not part of the alimentary canal. ✔ Examples: Liver (bile), Gallbladder (stores bile), Pancreas (enzymes & hormones), Salivary glands (saliva).

What is an accessory organ?

Parietal peritoneum – Lines abdominal wall (superficial). ✔ Visceral peritoneum – Covers organs (deep).

What are the two membranes of the peritoneum, superficial to deep?

✔ Mesentery – Double-layered fold that anchors and supports abdominal organs. ✔ Provides pathways for blood vessels, stores fat, allows organ movement.

What is the structure formed by the peritoneum folding over itself? What is its function?

✔ Retroperitoneal organ – Located behind the peritoneum, not fully enclosed. ✔ Examples: Kidneys, pancreas (except tail), duodenum (parts 2-4), adrenal glands, ureters.

What is an organ that is found posterior to the mesentery referred to as?

✔ Serosa – Outer protective layer; reduces friction. ✔ Muscularis externa – Smooth muscle layer; moves food via peristalsis. ✔ Submucosa – Connective tissue with nerves & vessels; supports mucosa. ✔ Mucosa – Inner lining; secretes mucus & absorbs nutrients.

What are the four general layers of the alimentary canal, and what are their functions?

Allow stomach expansion for food intake. ✔ Assist in mechanical digestion by gripping & churning food.

What is the main function of the rugae of the stomach?

Breaks down food, activates pepsin, kills bacteria, aids digestion.

Why is hydrochloric acid (HCL) produced in the stomach?

Parietal cells in gastric glands.

What cells produce HCl in the stomach?

Inactive form prevents stomach cell damage. ✔ Activates into pepsin for protein digestion.

Why is pepsinogen produced in the stomach?

Hydrochloric acid (HCl). ✔ Pepsin itself can also self-activate more pepsinogen.

What converts pepsinogen to pepsin?

Chief cells in gastric glands.

What cells produce pepsinogen?

✔ Semi-liquid food mixture formed in the stomach. ✔ Contains gastric juices & partially digested food. ✔ Passes into the small intestine for further digestion.

What is chyme?

✔ Absorbs nutrients, breaks down food, transfers nutrients to the bloodstream, regulates water absorption.

What is the main function of the small intestine?

✔ Increase surface area for nutrient absorption. ✔ Villi → Absorb nutrients via blood & lymphatic vessels. ✔ Microvilli → Form brush border, further enhancing absorption. ✔ Circular folds → Slow food movement for thorough digestion.

What purpose do villi, microvilli, and circular folds (plicae) serve for the small intestine?

Immune defense, pathogen neutralization, gut immunity support.

What is the purpose of lymphoid tissue in the small intestine?

Submucosa – Contains immune structures like Peyer’s patches.

In which layer of the alimentary canal is lymphoid tissue found?

✔ Water conservation – Absorbs excess water, preventing dehydration. ✔ Synthesis of vitamins B & K – Gut bacteria produce essential nutrients.

What are two main functions of the large intestine?

Insulin – Lowers blood sugar by promoting glucose uptake. ✔ Glucagon – Raises blood sugar by stimulating glucose release from the liver.

What two major hormones does the pancreas produce to regulate blood sugar levels?

Beta cells → Insulin (lowers blood sugar). ✔ Alpha cells → Glucagon (raises blood sugar).

Which cells produce insulin and glucagon in the pancreas?

✔ Proteases – Break down proteins into amino acids.

✔ Amylases – Break down carbohydrates into sugars.

✔ Lipases – Break down fats into fatty acids & glycerol.

What are the functions of proteases, amylases, and lipases?

✔ Chronic condition affecting blood sugar regulation. ✔ Caused by insulin dysfunction or resistance.

What is diabetes mellitus?

✔ Type 1: Autoimmune destruction of beta cells → No insulin. ✔ Type 2: Insulin resistance → Ineffective insulin use.

What’s the difference between Type 1 & Type 2 diabetes?

✔ Stores & concentrates bile from the liver.
✔ Releases bile into the duodenum to digest fats.
✔ Helps emulsify fats for efficient breakdown.

What is the main function of the gallbladder?

✔ Produces bile to break down fats.
✔ Emulsifies fats for efficient digestion.
✔ Processes & distributes nutrients.
✔ Detoxifies harmful substances.

What is the main digestive function of the liver?

Yellow pigment formed from hemoglobin breakdown. ✔ Processed by the liver & excreted in bile.

What is bilirubin?

Breakdown of red blood cells → Hemoglobin → Heme → Biliverdin → Bilirubin

What is bilirubin produced from?

✔ Metabolism regulation – Processes carbs, fats, proteins.
✔ Detoxification – Filters drugs & toxins.
✔ Blood clotting – Produces clotting factors.
✔ Storage – Vitamins A, D, B12, iron, glycogen.
✔ Hormone regulation – Metabolizes thyroid & steroid hormones.
✔ Immune function – Removes bacteria & old blood cells.

What are the major non-digestive functions of the liver?

✔ Most abundant plasma protein, produced by the liver.
✔ Maintains osmotic pressure, preventing fluid loss.
✔ Transports hormones, drugs, and nutrients.
✔ Buffers blood pH & supports immune function.

What is albumin and what are its functions?

✔ Transfers bile from liver to bile duct.
✔ Serves the liver.

What is the function of the common hepatic duct?

✔ Regulates bile & enzyme flow into duodenum.
✔ Serves liver, pancreas, and duodenum.

What is the function of the hepato-pancreatic duct?

✔ Moves bile from liver & gallbladder to small intestine.
✔ Serves liver, gallbladder, and intestines.

What is the function of the bile duct?

✔ Connects gallbladder to bile duct.
✔ Manages bile storage & release.

What is the function of the cystic duct?

✔HDL ("Good" Cholesterol): Removes excess cholesterol, protects heart health.
✔ LDL ("Bad" Cholesterol): Delivers cholesterol but can cause artery plaque buildup.

What is the function of HDL (High-Density Lipoprotein) and LDL(Low-Density Lipoprotein)?

✔ HDL counteracts LDL effects by removing excess cholesterol. ✔ Lower LDL + higher HDL = better cardiovascular health.

How do HDL (High-Density Lipoprotein) and LDL (Low-Density Lipoprotein) relate to each other?

✔ Produce sperm & testosterone

What is the function of the testes?

Coiled structures in testes where sperm form.

What are seminiferous tubules?

Regulates testes temperature for sperm production.

What is the function of the scrotum?

Stores & matures sperm. The epididymis also aids in sperm transport.

What is the function of the epididymis?

Carries sperm to ejaculatory ducts during ejaculation.

What is the function of the ductus (vas) deferens?

Produces fluid to nourish sperm & neutralize vaginal acidity.

What is the function of the prostate gland?

Produce fructose-rich fluid for sperm energy & survival.

What is the function of the seminal glands?

Secrete lubricating mucus to clean urethra & help sperm movement.Produces pre-ejaculatory fluid that neutralizes acidity.

What is the function of the bulbourethral glands?

Support sperm development, form blood-testis barrier, regulate spermatogenesis.

➡ What is the function of sustenocytes (Sertoli cells)?

Contract to move sperm, provide tubule structure.

What is the function of myoid cells?

Produce testosterone for sperm production & male traits

What is the function of interstitial (Leydig) cells?

✔ Process of sperm cell formation in the testes.
✔ Involves multiple stages of maturation & hormone regulation.

What is spermatogenesis?

✔ Final step of spermatogenesis → Spermatids mature into functional sperm.
✔ Develops flagellum, nucleus condenses, acrosome forms.

What is spermiogenesis?

✔ Stimulate uterine contractions → Helps sperm movement.
✔ Suppress female immune response → Increases sperm survival.

What is the role of prostaglandins in semen?

Stimulates Sertoli cells → Supports sperm production.

What is the function of FSH (Follicle-Stimulating Hormone)in males?

✔ Stimulates Leydig cells → Produces testosterone.

What is the function of LH(Luteinizing Hormone) in males?

What is the function of testosterone?

✔ Supports sperm production & male traits (muscle growth, voice deepening, reproductive health).

Produce eggs & female sex hormones (estrogen & progesterone).

What is the function of the ovaries?

Transport egg to uterus; site of fertilization.

What is the function of the fallopian tubes?

Supports pregnancy & sheds lining during menstruation.

What is the function of the uterus?

✔ Endometrium: Inner layer; thickens for pregnancy, sheds during menstruation.
✔ Myometrium: Muscular layer; contracts for labor & cramps.
✔ Perimetrium: Outer layer; provides structural support.

What are the three layers of the uterine wall?

Controls passage between uterus & vagina; dilates for childbirth.

What is the function of the cervix?

Passage for intercourse, childbirth, & menstrual flow.It serves as a conduit for sexual intercourse, childbirth, and the exit of menstrual fluid from the body.

What is the function of the vagina?

Egg development in ovaries; produces one mature ovum per cycle.

What is oogenesis?

✔ Before birth; pause in prophase I until puberty.
✔ Resume meiosis I each menstrual cycle.

When do primary oocytes begin meiosis I?

✔ Only if fertilized → Completes meiosis II to form a mature ovum.
✔ No fertilization → Oocyte degenerates.

When does a secondary oocyte undergo meiosis II?

✔ Days 6-14; endometrium thickens under estrogen influence. ✔ Prepares uterus for implantation.

What is the proliferative phase?

✔ Estrogen increases; stimulates endometrial growth & cervical mucus thinning.

What hormonal changes occur during the proliferative phase?

Ovulation → Triggered by LH (luteinizing hormone) surge.

What event marks the end of the proliferative phase?

✔ Estrogen (E2) → Thickens endometrium, thins cervical mucus. ✔ Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH) → Stimulates follicle growth & estrogen production.
✔ Luteinizing Hormone (LH) → Triggers ovulation & corpus luteum formation.

What are the roles of estrogen, FSH, and LH in the proliferative phase?

✔ Primordial follicle → Earliest follicle, contains immature oocyte, dormant until FSH stimulates growth.
✔ Graafian follicle → Fully mature follicle, releases egg during ovulation, high estrogen production.

What is the difference between a primordial follicle and a Graafian follicle?

✔ Maintains endometrium, preventing early shedding.
✔ Stimulates nutrient-rich secretions for implantation.
✔ Suppresses uterine contractions to support pregnancy.

What role does progesterone (P4) secreted by the corpus luteum play in the endometrium?

✔ Occurs in the fallopian tube (specifically the ampulla region). ✔ This is where the sperm meets and fertilizes the egg.

Where does fertilization occur?

✔ Occurs in the uterus, specifically in the endometrium (inner lining).
✔ This is where the fertilized egg attaches and begins forming the placenta.

Where does implantation occur?

✔ A single-cell fertilized egg, formed when sperm and egg unite. ✔ Carries genetic material from both parents.

What is a zygote?

✔ Called a blastocyst → A hollow ball of cells that implants into the uterine wall.
✔ Develops from a morula (solid ball of cells) before becoming a blastocyst.

By the time it reaches the uterus, what is the dividing zygote called?

✔ Hormone secreted by the developing embryo after fertilization.
✔ Maintains the corpus luteum → Ensures continued progesterone production.
✔ Prevents early menstrual shedding & supports pregnancy.

What is human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)?

✔ Prevents the menstrual phase by maintaining progesterone levels.
✔ Ensures endometrial stability for embryo implantation & growth.

What phase of the uterine cycle does hCG prevent?

✔ Temporary organ that forms during pregnancy to support the fetus.
✔ Functions:

• Transfers oxygen & nutrients from mother to baby.

• Removes waste from fetal blood.

• Secretes hormones (hCG, estrogen, progesterone) to maintain pregnancy. ✔ Attached to the uterine wall & connected to the baby via the umbilical cord.

What is the placenta?

✔ Progesterone & estrogen levels drop as the corpus luteum degenerates.
✔ Hormone decline triggers endometrial shedding → Menstruation begins.

What happens to progesterone (P4) and estrogen (E2) levels in the menstrual phase?

✔ Endometrial lining breaks down & is shed as menstrual flow. ✔ Marks the start of a new uterine cycle.

What happens to the endometrium in the menstrual phase?