AP Psychology Midterm

information processing model

encoding, storage and retrieval

encoding

* sensory organs take in external stimuli then translate info into the brain


* based on attention (30 secs required for something to make it to the long term memory)

retrieval

the ability to recall memory when you need it

sensory registers

limited but brief storage of external stimuli converted for cognitive processing

visual/iconic encoding

* register holds all aspects of an IMAGE from the environment
* requires 1/4 of a second
* increased likelihood of long term storage b/c it requires more attention

auditory encoding

SOUNDS from the environment

* requires 3-4 seconds of attention

semantic encoding

apply meaning to stimuli (attach an emotion to a memory)8

8 effective encoding strategies

1. automatic processing
2. serial position effect
3. self-referencing effect
4. organizational (hierarchical)
5. effortful processing
6. semantic encoding
7. chunking
8. rehearsal and spacing effect

serial position effect

the tendency to remember things FIRST AND LAST on a list rather than the middle

self referencing effect

tendency to better remember after making a personal connection

ex. a name similar to yours

organization enconding

classifying info into a sequence of terms (GROUPING) & building relationships between info

effortful processing

learning or sorting that requires attention

ex. being told that something will be on the test

chunking

grouping info into ACRONYMS

rehearsal & spacing effect

repetition and space produces a stronger memory

ex. study breaks

atkinson & shiffrin model

stimuli → sensory register → sensory memory→(ATTENTION)→ short term memory (enforced by REHEARSAL)→ long term memory → retrieval

short term memory (atkinson & shiffrin)

* 3-5 chunks of info at a time
* 5-15 seconds of attention required to remember w/o rehearsal
* 15-30 seconds of attention w/ rehearsal

long term memory (atkinson & shiffrin)

unlimited and permanent

baddley & engle

1. stimuli → automatic processing → long term memory (trauma)
2. stimuli → sensory memory → working/short term memory →long term memory

working memory (baddley & engle)

phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, episodic buffer → central executive

* enforced by semantic encoding

automatic processing (engle)

in a highly emotional state, you are able to jump directly from stimuli to long term memory

types of long term memory

procedural, semantic and episodic

procedural memory

responsible of knowing HOW to do things (motor skill memory)

ex. bike riding

semantic long term memory

responsible for storing info about the world

ex. meeanings & general knowledge (DECLARATIVE)

episodic long term memory

stores info about life events (CONSCIOUS & DECLARATIVE)

ex. first day of school

ebinghaus’ curve

forgetting curve that says we forget the majority of information rapidly

methods to measure forgetting

recall, recognition, relearning

recall measurement of forgetting

require a participate to REPRODUCE information on their own w/o CUES

recognition measurement of forgetting

requires a participant to select previously learned info from an array of options

ex. multiple choice test

(yields highest estimates of forgetting)

relearning measurement of forgetting

requires a participant to memorize info a 2nd time to determine how much time is saved by having previous knowledge

ex. timely studying

why we forget?

ineffective encoding, decay, interference, repression

proactive interferance

OLD interferes w/ NEW

retroactive interferance

NEW interferes w/ OLD

context effect (retrieval)

long term memory is best when in a similar PHYSICAL STATE as when first encoded

ex. standardized testing

State Dependent Effect (retrieval)

long term memory is best when in a similar STATE OF CONSCIOUSNESS as first encoded

Mood Congruence Effect (retrieval)

long term memory is best when in a similar MOOD or EMOTIONAL STATE as when first encodedm

Misinformation effect (retrieval)

when a person experiences a gap in memory or inability to successfully retrieve info so the brain will substitute logical but incorrect information to make sense

(natural gaslighting) (LOFTUS)

psychology

scientific student of human/animal thought, behavior, and emotion

__**NATURE**__ side of the nature vs. nuture argument

everything is based on genetic inheritance

(biological and evolutionary approach)

__**NURTURE**__ side of the nature vs. nuture argument

everything is based on ENVIRONMENTAL context

(behavioral and sociocultural)

wilhelm wundt

FATHER OF PSYCH

* opened the 1st lab for the study of psychology

Structuralist approach

all TBE can only be understood by isolating pieces of experience

* no longer used
* important scientist: titchner

functionalist approach

all TBE can only understood by understanding its function or usefulness

* no longer used
* important scientist: James (titchner’s student)

Psychoanalytic approach

all TBE is motivated by the unconscious influences of AGGRESSION and SEX

* no longer used
* important scientist: FREUD

behavioral approach

all TBE is based on can we can see, changes, and is learned

* important scientists: pavlov, watson, skinner

Humanistic approach

all TBE stems from our need to thrive & succeed

\-important scientists: roger, maslow, emily fay

cognitive approach

all TBE can be understood by mental process

* important scientists: ebinghaus, loftus, atkinson & shiffrin

biological approach

all TBE is influenced by anatomy and physiology

* important scientists: sperry, gazzoniga

psychodynamic approach

all TBE is motived by unconscious influences of childhood and past experiences

* important scientists: adler, jung

evolutionary approach

all TBE is motivated by a need to survive both physically and genetically

* DAVID BUSS

Socio-cultural approach

all TBE are influenced by the socio-contexts that we operate

* festinger, ekman, loftus

replication in psych. research

the repetition of a study to see whether earlier results can be duplicated

meta-analysis

combing the statistical results of many studies of the same question

placebo effect

when a participants expectations of a study lead them to experience fake effects

* faking being drunk b/c you drank form a mysterious red solo cupsoc

social desirability bias

the tendency to give the “societal” approved response for a favorable impression

* ex. faking being drunk b/c everyone around you is

halo effect/bias

when someone’s overall evaluation of a person/object is influences to more specific ratings

* your boss rating you highly because you guys are friends outside of work

experimenter bias

when a researcher’s expectations or preferences about the outcome of a study influence the results they gather

double-blind procedure

a research strategy when neither the experimenters or the subjects know the treatment from the control group

ethical principles of psych

1. voluntary participation and right to withdrawal
2. no harmful treatment
3. debriefed of all deception
4. right to privacy

scientific method of psych

1. observation/question
2. hypothesis (if_then_)
3. baseline measure (background context or past knowledge)
4. operationalize variables
5. conduct study
6. collect & analyze data
7. draw conclusion
8. verify results (replicate and generalize)

research methods

tells you the TYPE of conclusion to expect

* descriptive, correctional or experimental

research tools

HOW we collect data

* case study survey naturalistic observation, experiment, archival

Descriptive Statistics

simplify & summarize data (mean, median, mode, range)

inferential statistics

manipulate state to determine the MEANING of collected data to then draw appropriate conclusion

* correlation coefficient, statistical significance, standard deviation

classical conditioning (IVAN PAVLOV)

the type of learning in which a response naturally elicited by 1 stimulus is learned to be a response to a different neutral stimulus

* LEARNING THROUGH PAIRING

Pavlov’s Dogs

used dogs and a tone to associate between hunger

\
ucs: food

ucr: salivation

**PAIRING**: food + tone

cs: tone

cr: salivation

learning theory

the process by which experience or practice results in a relatively permanent change in behavior or potential behavior

pairing principle

the strength of the association between the CS and the UCS depends on the NUMBER of times both stimuli are paired

* classical conditioning theory
* by PAVLOV

contingency theory

the strength of the association between the CS and the UCS depends on the PERCEIVED IMPORTANCE or connection between the pairing

Higher order theory of classical conditioning

previously learned situation creased a conditioned stimulus to function as an unconditioned stimulus in future learning

\
ex. liking toys, liking money to get toys becomes liking money to wanting to work to get money

operant conditioning

a type of learning the depends on the CONSEQUENCE that follows a behavior

model of operant conditioning

target behavior → what is intended to be learned

what?→ type of consequence

how?→ delivery of consequence

when?→ schedule of reinforcement

reinforcement consequences

type of consequence that INCREASES the target behavior

punishment consequences

type of consequence that is meant to DISCOURAGE the target behavior

positive consequence

GAINING something in exchange for the target behavior

negative consequence

LOSING something in exchange for the target behaivor

schedules of reinforcement in operant conditioning

fixed ratio, fixed interval, variable ratio, variable interval

fixed ratio schedule of reinforcement

consequence given at the SAME frequency as the behavior

* habitual
* ex. buy 10 get 1 free

fixed interval schedule of reingforcement

SAME amount of TIME passes between behavior and consequence

* predictable
* ex. paycheck every 2 weeks of work

\

variable ratio schedule of reinforcement

DIFFERENT frequency as the behavior

* unpredictable
* ex. lottery: don’t know how many tickets to buy to win but you know SOMEONE will win

variable interval schedule of reinforcment

different amount of TIME passes between the behavior and consequence

* unpredictable
* ex. Pop quiz- you don’t know when one will be given

latent learning

learning that is not apparent from the behavior when it first occurs

Edward TOLMAN’s study

landmark study where 3 groups of rats ran through a maze to study how motivation impacts learning

* group a: reward at the end of the maze - gradual improvement
* group b- no food reward - many errors, low improvement
* group c- no reward for the first 10 trials, reward after 11+ -sharp improvement

preparedness

species-specific predispositions to be conditioned in certain ways and not others

(why some phobias are more common than others)

social cognitive learning theory (observational)

type of learning where the change in behavior results from watching/hearing and reproducing the behavior based on conscious awareness & processing

model of observational learning theory

* model → who you are learning form
* attention → encoding
* retention → storing in long term memory
* reproduction → change in behavior
* motivation → reason for paying attention

Bandora’s Bobo Doll Study

study of aggression in children

* model→ learning from ADULTS violent behavior to Bobo
* attention→ semantic and iconic: learning how to treat the doll
* retention→ cerebellum (learning HOW)
* reproduction→children copying the behavior
* motivation→ adults as ROLE models

constructionist learning theory

learning is an ongoing, continuous process of constantly building on prior knowledge

schema

prior knowledge

brain-based learning theory

prioritized optimal brain functioning for learning; emphasizes the learners emotional sate, safety and security of the learning environment

implicit learning theory

relates to ENGLE’s theory of memory storage; learning form the argument can occur w/o conscious awareness or attention

problem solving

refers to active efforts to discover what must be done to achieve a goal that is not readily attainable

functional fixedness

the tendency to perceive an item only in terms of it's common use

mental set

when people persist in using problem solving strategies that have WORKED PREVIOUSLY

heuristic

a guiding principle or rule of thumb in solving problem

decision making

involves evaluating alternatives and making choices among them

theory of bounded rationality

people tend to use simple strategies in decision making that focus on only a few facts of available option

availability heuristic

estimated probably of an event on the east where RELEVANT instances come to mind

representative heuristic

estimated probability of an event is based on how similar it is to the TYPICAL probability of that event

* stereotypes

conjunction fallacy

when people estimate the odds of two uncertain events happening together are greater than the odds of either event happening alone

dendrites

part of the neuron that receive neurotransmitters to begin transmission