AP Psychology Midterm

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185 Terms

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information processing model

encoding, storage and retrieval

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encoding

  • sensory organs take in external stimuli then translate info into the brain

  • based on attention (30 secs required for something to make it to the long term memory)

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retrieval

the ability to recall memory when you need it

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sensory registers

limited but brief storage of external stimuli converted for cognitive processing

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visual/iconic encoding

  • register holds all aspects of an IMAGE from the environment
    • requires 1/4 of a second
  • increased likelihood of long term storage b/c it requires more attention
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auditory encoding

SOUNDS from the environment

  • requires 3-4 seconds of attention
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semantic encoding

apply meaning to stimuli (attach an emotion to a memory)8

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8 effective encoding strategies

  1. automatic processing
  2. serial position effect
  3. self-referencing effect
  4. organizational (hierarchical)
  5. effortful processing
  6. semantic encoding
  7. chunking
  8. rehearsal and spacing effect
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serial position effect

the tendency to remember things FIRST AND LAST on a list rather than the middle

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self referencing effect

tendency to better remember after making a personal connection

ex. a name similar to yours

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organization enconding

classifying info into a sequence of terms (GROUPING) & building relationships between info

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effortful processing

learning or sorting that requires attention

ex. being told that something will be on the test

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chunking

grouping info into ACRONYMS

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rehearsal & spacing effect

repetition and space produces a stronger memory

ex. study breaks

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atkinson & shiffrin model

stimuli → sensory register → sensory memory→(ATTENTION)→ short term memory (enforced by REHEARSAL)→ long term memory → retrieval

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short term memory (atkinson & shiffrin)

  • 3-5 chunks of info at a time
  • 5-15 seconds of attention required to remember w/o rehearsal
  • 15-30 seconds of attention w/ rehearsal
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long term memory (atkinson & shiffrin)

unlimited and permanent

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baddley & engle

  1. stimuli → automatic processing → long term memory (trauma)
  2. stimuli → sensory memory → working/short term memory →long term memory
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working memory (baddley & engle)

phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, episodic buffer → central executive

  • enforced by semantic encoding
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automatic processing (engle)

in a highly emotional state, you are able to jump directly from stimuli to long term memory

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types of long term memory

procedural, semantic and episodic

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procedural memory

responsible of knowing HOW to do things (motor skill memory)

ex. bike riding

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semantic long term memory

responsible for storing info about the world

ex. meeanings & general knowledge (DECLARATIVE)

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episodic long term memory

stores info about life events (CONSCIOUS & DECLARATIVE)

ex. first day of school

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ebinghaus’ curve

forgetting curve that says we forget the majority of information rapidly

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methods to measure forgetting

recall, recognition, relearning

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recall measurement of forgetting

require a participate to REPRODUCE information on their own w/o CUES

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recognition measurement of forgetting

requires a participant to select previously learned info from an array of options

ex. multiple choice test

(yields highest estimates of forgetting)

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relearning measurement of forgetting

requires a participant to memorize info a 2nd time to determine how much time is saved by having previous knowledge

ex. timely studying

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why we forget?

ineffective encoding, decay, interference, repression

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proactive interferance

OLD interferes w/ NEW

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retroactive interferance

NEW interferes w/ OLD

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context effect (retrieval)

long term memory is best when in a similar PHYSICAL STATE as when first encoded

ex. standardized testing

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State Dependent Effect (retrieval)

long term memory is best when in a similar STATE OF CONSCIOUSNESS as first encoded

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Mood Congruence Effect (retrieval)

long term memory is best when in a similar MOOD or EMOTIONAL STATE as when first encodedm

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Misinformation effect (retrieval)

when a person experiences a gap in memory or inability to successfully retrieve info so the brain will substitute logical but incorrect information to make sense

(natural gaslighting) (LOFTUS)

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psychology

scientific student of human/animal thought, behavior, and emotion

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NATURE side of the nature vs. nuture argument

everything is based on genetic inheritance

(biological and evolutionary approach)

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NURTURE side of the nature vs. nuture argument

everything is based on ENVIRONMENTAL context

(behavioral and sociocultural)

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wilhelm wundt

FATHER OF PSYCH

  • opened the 1st lab for the study of psychology
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Structuralist approach

all TBE can only be understood by isolating pieces of experience

  • no longer used
  • important scientist: titchner
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functionalist approach

all TBE can only understood by understanding its function or usefulness

  • no longer used
    • important scientist: James (titchner’s student)
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Psychoanalytic approach

all TBE is motivated by the unconscious influences of AGGRESSION and SEX

  • no longer used
    • important scientist: FREUD
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behavioral approach

all TBE is based on can we can see, changes, and is learned

  • important scientists: pavlov, watson, skinner
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Humanistic approach

all TBE stems from our need to thrive & succeed

-important scientists: roger, maslow, emily fay

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cognitive approach

all TBE can be understood by mental process

  • important scientists: ebinghaus, loftus, atkinson & shiffrin
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biological approach

all TBE is influenced by anatomy and physiology

  • important scientists: sperry, gazzoniga
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psychodynamic approach

all TBE is motived by unconscious influences of childhood and past experiences

  • important scientists: adler, jung
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evolutionary approach

all TBE is motivated by a need to survive both physically and genetically

  • DAVID BUSS
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Socio-cultural approach

all TBE are influenced by the socio-contexts that we operate

  • festinger, ekman, loftus
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replication in psych. research

the repetition of a study to see whether earlier results can be duplicated

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meta-analysis

combing the statistical results of many studies of the same question

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placebo effect

when a participants expectations of a study lead them to experience fake effects

  • faking being drunk b/c you drank form a mysterious red solo cupsoc
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social desirability bias

the tendency to give the “societal” approved response for a favorable impression

  • ex. faking being drunk b/c everyone around you is
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halo effect/bias

when someone’s overall evaluation of a person/object is influences to more specific ratings

  • your boss rating you highly because you guys are friends outside of work
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experimenter bias

when a researcher’s expectations or preferences about the outcome of a study influence the results they gather

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double-blind procedure

a research strategy when neither the experimenters or the subjects know the treatment from the control group

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ethical principles of psych

  1. voluntary participation and right to withdrawal
  2. no harmful treatment
  3. debriefed of all deception
  4. right to privacy
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scientific method of psych

  1. observation/question
  2. hypothesis (ifthen)
  3. baseline measure (background context or past knowledge)
  4. operationalize variables
  5. conduct study
  6. collect & analyze data
  7. draw conclusion
  8. verify results (replicate and generalize)
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research methods

tells you the TYPE of conclusion to expect

  • descriptive, correctional or experimental
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research tools

HOW we collect data

  • case study survey naturalistic observation, experiment, archival
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Descriptive Statistics

simplify & summarize data (mean, median, mode, range)

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inferential statistics

manipulate state to determine the MEANING of collected data to then draw appropriate conclusion

  • correlation coefficient, statistical significance, standard deviation
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classical conditioning (IVAN PAVLOV)

the type of learning in which a response naturally elicited by 1 stimulus is learned to be a response to a different neutral stimulus

  • LEARNING THROUGH PAIRING
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Pavlov’s Dogs

used dogs and a tone to associate between hunger

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ucs: food

ucr: salivation

PAIRING: food + tone

cs: tone

cr: salivation

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learning theory

the process by which experience or practice results in a relatively permanent change in behavior or potential behavior

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pairing principle

the strength of the association between the CS and the UCS depends on the NUMBER of times both stimuli are paired

  • classical conditioning theory
  • by PAVLOV
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contingency theory

the strength of the association between the CS and the UCS depends on the PERCEIVED IMPORTANCE or connection between the pairing

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Higher order theory of classical conditioning

previously learned situation creased a conditioned stimulus to function as an unconditioned stimulus in future learning

\
ex. liking toys, liking money to get toys becomes liking money to wanting to work to get money

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operant conditioning

a type of learning the depends on the CONSEQUENCE that follows a behavior

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model of operant conditioning

target behavior → what is intended to be learned

what?→ type of consequence

how?→ delivery of consequence

when?→ schedule of reinforcement

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reinforcement consequences

type of consequence that INCREASES the target behavior

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punishment consequences

type of consequence that is meant to DISCOURAGE the target behavior

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positive consequence

GAINING something in exchange for the target behavior

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negative consequence

LOSING something in exchange for the target behaivor

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schedules of reinforcement in operant conditioning

fixed ratio, fixed interval, variable ratio, variable interval

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fixed ratio schedule of reinforcement

consequence given at the SAME frequency as the behavior

  • habitual
    • ex. buy 10 get 1 free
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fixed interval schedule of reingforcement

SAME amount of TIME passes between behavior and consequence

  • predictable

    • ex. paycheck every 2 weeks of work

    \

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variable ratio schedule of reinforcement

DIFFERENT frequency as the behavior

  • unpredictable
    • ex. lottery: don’t know how many tickets to buy to win but you know SOMEONE will win
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variable interval schedule of reinforcment

different amount of TIME passes between the behavior and consequence

  • unpredictable
    • ex. Pop quiz- you don’t know when one will be given
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latent learning

learning that is not apparent from the behavior when it first occurs

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Edward TOLMAN’s study

landmark study where 3 groups of rats ran through a maze to study how motivation impacts learning

  • group a: reward at the end of the maze - gradual improvement
  • group b- no food reward - many errors, low improvement
  • group c- no reward for the first 10 trials, reward after 11+ -sharp improvement
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preparedness

species-specific predispositions to be conditioned in certain ways and not others

(why some phobias are more common than others)

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social cognitive learning theory (observational)

type of learning where the change in behavior results from watching/hearing and reproducing the behavior based on conscious awareness & processing

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model of observational learning theory

  • model → who you are learning form
  • attention → encoding
  • retention → storing in long term memory
  • reproduction → change in behavior
    • motivation → reason for paying attention
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Bandora’s Bobo Doll Study

study of aggression in children

  • model→ learning from ADULTS violent behavior to Bobo
  • attention→ semantic and iconic: learning how to treat the doll
  • retention→ cerebellum (learning HOW)
  • reproduction→children copying the behavior
    • motivation→ adults as ROLE models
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constructionist learning theory

learning is an ongoing, continuous process of constantly building on prior knowledge

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schema

prior knowledge

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brain-based learning theory

prioritized optimal brain functioning for learning; emphasizes the learners emotional sate, safety and security of the learning environment

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implicit learning theory

relates to ENGLE’s theory of memory storage; learning form the argument can occur w/o conscious awareness or attention

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problem solving

refers to active efforts to discover what must be done to achieve a goal that is not readily attainable

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functional fixedness

the tendency to perceive an item only in terms of it's common use

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mental set

when people persist in using problem solving strategies that have WORKED PREVIOUSLY

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heuristic

a guiding principle or rule of thumb in solving problem

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decision making

involves evaluating alternatives and making choices among them

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theory of bounded rationality

people tend to use simple strategies in decision making that focus on only a few facts of available option

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availability heuristic

estimated probably of an event on the east where RELEVANT instances come to mind

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representative heuristic

estimated probability of an event is based on how similar it is to the TYPICAL probability of that event

  • stereotypes
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conjunction fallacy

when people estimate the odds of two uncertain events happening together are greater than the odds of either event happening alone

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dendrites

part of the neuron that receive neurotransmitters to begin transmission